قانون ٹارٹ كا فقہ اسلامى كى روشنى میں جائزہ

Tort law is an umbrella term for  laws  which cover issues of civil wrongs like defamation, trespassing and the other actions involving  violation of law. In case a person has undergone a physical, legal or any economic harm then he can file a suit under the tort law. Torts are civil wrongs recognized by law as grounds for a lawsuit. It is also generally known that tort in Islamic fiqh as “Jinayet”. This paper attempts to analys  by Islamic law in thel light of the  relevant verses for the Qur’an followed by the rules stated in traditions from the Prophet (Peace by on him). Jinayat the part of Shari’a that applies to homicide or physical  injury is called jinayat and is based on the pre-Islamic rules of Arab blood feud, as modified by Prophet (Peace be on him). The punishment is either retaliation or blood money (diyat). Retaliation occurs only upon  the request of the victim, if alive, or his nearest kin if the victim is dead, and is to be inflicted by victim or kin. In the case of homicide retaliation means death, in the case of injury it means imposing an identical injury. Where retaliation is one of the options, the victim or his closest kinsman may demand blood money instead, or negotiate an out of court settlement. Jinayat, like modern tort law, is based on private action; there is no official responsible for initiating the case.

Production and Characterization of Pectinases by Aspergillus Niger for Industrial Use

Two hundred and sixteen fungal strains were isolated from two hundred fifty soil samples collected from different localities of Punjab and subjected to screening for their pectinolytic ability using submerged fermentation. One hundred and fifty one pectinolytic strains were subjected to secondary screening and isolate IIB-13 gave the maximum pectinase yield (10.78±0.45U/ml/min) and identified as Aspergillus niger using morphological characteristics. Random mutagenesis (physical and chemical) was used to improve the pectinolytic activity of strain IIB-13. Nitrous acid mutant H-97 resulted in three fold increase (32.16 + 0.05U/ml/min) in pectinase production. This H-97strain was further subjected to optimization of media, carbon and nitrogen sources, temperature and pH. Maximum pectinase (37.01±0.11 U/ml/min) was produced using medium containing K2HPO4 (4.0 g), yeast extract (0.6 g), KH2PO4 (1.28 g), (NH4)2SO4 (2.0 g), MgSO4 (1.1 g) and pectin (10 g) per 1.0 L of distilled water at pH and temperature (7.0 and 30°C) respectively after 60 hours of fermentation. Fermenter studies (7.5 L) resulted in increased pectinase activity (40.31±0.07 U/ml/min) with decreased incubation time of 48 h using 1% inoculums with optimized reaction conditions i.e. temperature (30°C), pH (07), agitation (200 rpm) and aeration (1vvm). Fermentation kinetics was applied to validate the results. The crude enzyme was subjected to purification by applying ammonium sulfate precipitation and Ion exchange chromatography which resulted in 44.20 % yield with increased activity i.e. 75.18±0.04 U/mg. Km value of 2.30 mg/ml using pectin as substrate showed its maximum specificity for the enzyme. Activation energy (Ea) i.e. -28.95 KJ/mol and enthalpy of activation (ΔH) i.e. -26.73 KJ/mol were calculated employing thermodynamic studies. Characterization of enzyme revealed catalytic activity optimum temperature and pH as 25°C and pH 7. The enzymes catalytic activity was observed to be reduced by some heavy metals such as Hg2+, Pb2+, Cu+ and Cd2+.