موضوع 9:مغربی تنقید کے اہم نام
پس منظر:
لان جائنس کے بعد۱۳۰۰ سال تک خاموشی رہتی ہے اور پھر "دانتے" کے آنے سے یہ خاموشی ٹوٹتی ہے۔انگلستان میں "فلپ سڈنی" ، فرانس کے "بولو"ڈرائیڈن ، پوپ، جانس، گوئٹے، ورڈز ورتھ، کولرج وغیرہ جیسے قابل ذکر نام ہمارے سامنے آتے ہیں۔
ورڈزورتھ:
ورڈز ورتھ کا تعلق انگلینڈ سے تھا۔ اس کی ملاقات کولرج سے ہوئی اور مل کر سوچا جو شاعری ہو رہی ہے اس میں کوئی نئی بات نہیں ہے۔لہذا وقت کی ضرورت ہے کہ انگریزی ادب میں تبدیلی لائیں تاکہ مقصدیت کو بھی ہو۔ لوگوں کو فائدہ بھی ہوگا اس کے لیے ماحول تیار کرنے کی ضرورت ہے۔ ورڈزورتھ نے اپنی کتاب"کلیریکل بلیڈز " کے دوسرے ایڈیشن میں ایک مقدمہ یعنی تمہید لکھی۔جیسے مقدمہ شعر و شاعری میں حالی نے شروع میں جو صفحات لکھے اردو ادب میں ان کو بنیادی اہمیت حاصلہے۔ اسی طریقے سے جو تمہید ورڈزورتھ نے لکھی وہ تنقید کا پورا راستہ متعین کرتی ہے۔اس میں انہوں نے اپنا نکتہ نظر اور ماہیت بیان کی۔ انہوں نے بتایا کہ نئی شاعری کس طرح کی ہونی چاہیئے۔اس کے قواعد و ضوابط کیا ہوں۔ورڈز ورتھ کی تمہید اس اعلان سے شروع ہوتی ہے :
"شاعری بادشاہوں، امیروں اور نوابوں کے لیے نہیں ہے۔اب وہ دور ختم ہوگیا جب اس بات کا خیال رکھا جاتا تھا کہ بادشاہوں کو جو پسند ہے وہ لکھا جائے۔ اب جو موضوعات اور زبان کا معیار ہے وہ لکھا جائے۔اس کے لیے کچھ اصول متعین کیے جانے ہیں۔انہی پر عمل کیا جائے گا۔ اب زبان اور موضوع شاہی دربار سے نکل کر عوام میں واپس آجائے گا۔"
ورڈزورتھ نے جو تھیوری پیش کی اس کا مطلب یہ ہے کہ اب عوام کے لیے لکھیں۔ ورڈزورتھ نے لکھا کہ:
"شاعری اور ادب کا مقصد عام زندگی سے موضوعات حاصل کرکے...
A judge should be honest, transparent, free and fair. He should always respect law. The question arises that if a judge who disrespects law and makes unbalanced decisions: as a result of which people get affected then will he or she be penalized? The Ḥanafi Scholars opine that if a judge passes a wrong decision intentionally, he should be penalized from his own property. Because in Islamic jurisprudence, judiciary owns a supremacy over the masses and everyone irrespective of the position is equal and has to obey law. Whether he is a judge or a commoner, he has to follow the rules and regulations as prescribed by law. In practice, Pakistani judges are not held responsible for making a wrong verdict. Our judges make judgments on the basis of already manipulated evidence. A judge bars himself from the responsibility of collecting evidence. Similarly, if a judge has developed personal grudges with the criminal then the criminal reserves right of appealing the higher court where the decision is reviewed and rectified. In such situation, there is a compulsion between the legal maxim "وَالْأَصْلُ عَدَمُ الضَّمَان" and the Pakistani laws. However, Ḥanafi jurisprudence and Pakistani Laws are not in accordance with each other. This study concentrates upon the nature of punishment and tort to be applied on judges in case of making a decision based on falsehood. It is suggested that Pakistan’s Judiciary should be reread as that the already in-practice system does not comply with the standards of Islamic teachings.
Citrus greening or Huanglongbing (HLB) is one of the most destructive diseases of citrus worldwide. It is threatening survival of the citrus industry in Pakistan. The causal agent of HLB is ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’. The search for alternative citrus greening tolerant/resistant scion and rootstocks that also withstand the other constraints is needed for a sustainable citrus industry. The production of somatic hybrids allows accumulating all the dominant traits of both parents, irrespective of their heterozygosity level, and has proven to be an important tool for rootstock improvement. A new embryogenic callus line and suspension culture of the seedy and polyembryonic ‘W. Murcott’ mandarin hybrid has been developed. Citrus latipes (papeda) a monoembryonic citrus has been purported to exhibit tolerance to HLB. Somatic hybridization of ‘W. Murcott’ mandarin hybrid with Citrus latipes was conducted by protoplast fusion of embryogenic suspension culture-derived protoplasts isolated from ‘W. Murcott’ mandarin with leaf protoplasts of C. latipes. Analysis of ploidy level by flow cytometry confirmed the regeneration of thirty five new interesting tetraploid somatic hybrids from this combination. Furthermore, the morphology of the new putative somatic hybrids was intermediate between the parents, exhibiting the larger winged petiole and elongated leaf characteristics of C. latipes. Molecular markers analysis of the new somatic hybrids to determine the allotetraploid and autotetraploid hybrids showed that at least few hybrids are allotetraploid. Another fusion for scion improvement was performed between W murcott suspension protoplast and Snack mesophyll protoplast. Snack is a tangor hybrid and is showing greening tolerance up till now. Fourteen plants were regenerated from W murcott and Snack combination and all were confirmed as autotetraploids. W murcott is best regenerative parent and performs well under tissue culture conditions. It has drought tolerance. Its hybrids can perform well under arid conditions of Pakistan. Its breeding with Kinnow can produce triploid crop of an intermediate season. The new somatic hybrids will be propagated to evaluate their horticultural performance and ability to mitigate or prevent HLB in grafted commercial scions. The somatic hybrid rootstocks should also have potential to control tree size due to polyploidy, and should be amenable to standard seed propagation via nucellar seed production. W. Murcott was used as a parent in this project because it is a mandarin hybrid that is seedy and polyembryonic, a trait needed for traditional seed propagation of rootstocks. These hybrids will add new germplasm to the citrus scion and rootstock breeding program, potentially addressing the HLB problem.