The British Colonial Encounter with the Pukhtuns: An Appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s Struggle against the British Raj (1936-1947)

The North-West Frontier region of the British Empire in India during the Great Game was part of the ‘Ring Fence Strategy’, framed by the Raj against its adversaries and rivals in Central and South Asia. To protect her ‘Jewel in the Crown’- India, the British Raj made several moves in the strategically placed Pukhtun1 land. The Pukhtun populace, adherent to their centuries old code of conduct, Puḳhtūnwali, consistently resisted the British encroachment of their territory. Mirza Ali Khan, popularly known as Faqir Ippi, was one of the many freedom fighters who challenged the imperialist power in this region. Taking notice of Islam Bibi’s case, a Hindu Convert, Faqir Ippi mobilized the Pukhtuns of Waziristan in defying and fighting the British. He was a serious contestant to the British authority with his well-known fighting skills, effective planning and guerilla tactics in one of the most difficult terrains. The entire Tribal Belt, especially Waziristan, proved to be a ‘turbulent frontier’ for nearly eleven years, i.e. 1936-1947. This insurgency started bringing bad name to the crown and encouraging others to rise against the British. To contain and end Faqir Ippi’s resistance, Governor George Cunningham hired the locals to instigate and bribe his followers to rise and fight against him. The aim of this paper is a critical evaluation of the British strategy in this region and an appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s response and assessment of how successful he was in invigorating Pukhtun resistance to defend their motherland, using both colonial and local sources.

Efficiency of Zinc Utilization in Wheat Genotypes

Zinc (Zn) deficiency is a universal nutrient constraint of agricultural crops produced on alkaline calcareous soils. Crop species and varieties differ genetically in response to Zn applied to root medium. A series of solution and soil culture experiments were conducted to assess the differential Zn utilization efficiency of wheat genotypes having varying genetic attributes. In the first study, twelve wheat genotypes were grown in solution culture at adequate and deficient Zn levels. The plants were harvested twice after transplanting and Zn efficiency traits, such as biomass accumulation, Zn uptake and Zn utilization efficiency were identified. Based on the results, thus generated, the wheat genotypes Sehar-06 and Vatan were categorized as Zn efficient and inefficient respectively and selected for next studies. In second study, the wheat genotypes were grown in plastic pots containing a Zn deficient soil. Plants were harvested at maturity. The harvested plants were analyzed for uptake and distribution of Zn in wheat straw and grain. Similar response of wheat genotypes to Zn stress was observed in soil culture. Sehar-06 was selected as efficient and Vatan was selected and inefficient genotype. In the third study selected wheat genotypes were grown in solution culture to study Zn uptake, transport, and utilization efficiency. For this, plants were harvested twice and shoot samples were separated in older and younger leaves to estimate Zn translocations within plants. Wheat genotype Sehar-06 efficiently translocated Zn from roots and older leaves to younger leaves when subjected to Zn deficiency stress. The forth study involved growing of these genotypes in solution culture with adequate and deficient Zn levels for 40 days to measure root exudates released in solution. Efficient wheat genotype Sehar-06 released significantly higher amount of maleic acid under Zn deficient conditions but no trend was observed in release of fumaric acid. It is hoped that these findings will set forth useful information to categorize the wheat genotypes under study into efficient and inefficient Zn utilizers. This in turn will be helpful for researchers to plan their breeding experiments and to set genotype specific recommendations for Zn deficient soils.