حديث أُمرت أن أقاتل الناس حتى يشهدوا: دراسة في حرية الاعتقاد والفعل

One of the greatest epistemological accomplishments that Muslims have achieved is the establishment of an accurate system of deriving rulings from Sharia texts, which is known as ‘principles of jurisprudence’ or Usūl ul Fiq. Among the significant contents of these subject is dealing with the text which apparently contradicts to other basic principles of Islam or objectives of Sharī’ah. The job of a jurist becomes more significant and difficult in devising the judgments and interpreting the texts as reported by the fundamentalists: inquiring the validity of the texts, finding its weakness with respect to strong argument, and comparing them in terms of authenticity. Other times, he tries to reconcile between the contradictions by keeping in view a meaning consistent with Sharī’ah. The application of these principles gave birth to the variety and diversity of opinions on account of Ijtihād. Keeping in view the above preamble, the author addressed one of the famous Ahadith of Holy Prophet PBUH: “I have been ordered to fight against the people until they testify.”. This saying of Holy Prophet PBUH attracted Muslim thinkers in past and present to address its meanings and application. Likewise some related debate has emerged in the modern period as regards whether the term "people" in the hadith is used generically or specifically - forcing these people to Islam after defeating? The author in this context, addressed the terminology of hadith, its apparent contradiction with the principles of Sharī’ah, legal maxims, provisions, diverse interpretations, and added his own opinion. Descriptive and qualitative research approach was employed for the collection, demonstration and analysis of data.

Curvature Matter Coupling: Some Cosmic Aspects

This thesis studies some cosmic aspects in modified theories involving cur- vature matter coupling. In this setting, we concentrate on f (R, T ) and f (R, T, R μν T μν ) theories to discuss the thermodynamic laws with the non- equilibrium description at the apparent horizon of FRW universe. It is shown that Friedmann equations can be transformed to the form of Clau- sius relation T h S ef f = δQ, S ef f is the entropy which contains contributions both from horizon entropy as well as additional entropy term introduced due to the non-equilibrating description and δQ is the energy flux across the horizon. The generalized second law of thermodynamics is also estab- lished in a more comprehensive form and one can recover the corresponding results in Einstein as well as f (R) theories. We remark that equilibrium description in such theories needs more study to follow. Moreover, we discuss the validity of energy conditions in f (R, T, R μν T μν ) gravity. The corresponding energy conditions are presented in terms of re- cent values of Hubble, deceleration, jerk and snap parameters. In particular, we use two specific models recently developed in literature to study concrete application of these conditions as well as Dolgov-Kawasaki instability. We explore f (R, T ) gravity as a specific case to this modified theory for expo- nential and power law models. The exact power law solutions are obtained for two particular cases in homogeneous and isotropic f (R, T ) cosmology. Finally, we find certain constraints which have to be satisfied to ensure that power law solutions may be stable and match the bounds prescribed by the energy conditions. We also explore the locally rotationally symmetric Bianchi type I model ixx with perfect fluid as matter content in f (R, T ) gravity. The exact solutions of the field equations are obtained for two expansion laws namely exponen- tial and power law expansions. The physical and kinematical quantities are examined for both cases in future evolution of the universe. We investigate the validity of null energy condition and conclude that our solutions are consistent with the current observations.