دور جدید میں کرائے کی ماں (Surrogate Mothering) کا تصور اور اسلامی نقطہ نظر

Artificial insemination is a means of attaining pregnancy not involving sexual intercourse. A couple having trouble getting pregnant can benefit from the exact timing and placement of the sperm. It can overcome instances where a woman's immune system can reject her partner's sperm as invading molecules. In the case of an impotent male, donor sperm may be used. It is also a means for a woman to conceive when two women wish to parent a child, or a single woman does not have a male partner, when she does not want a male partner, or when a male partner's physical limitation impedes his ability to impregnate her by sexual intercourse. A relationship in which one woman bears and gives birth to a child for a person or a couple who then adopts or takes legal custody of the child; called Surrogate Motherhood. In surrogate motherhood, one woman acts as a surrogate, or replacement, mother for another woman, sometimes called the intended mother, who either cannot produce fertile eggs or cannot carry a pregnancy through to birth, or term. Surrogate mothering phenomena is prevailing all over the world now days especially in America and European countries. The first recognized surrogate mother arrangement was made in 1976. Surrogate mothering is also introducing in Islam in some extend but Islam has its own laws regarding each and every problem of life. This Article is a summary of all positive and negative aspects of said issue and a critical analysis of its implications according to the Islamic injunctions in modern era.

Assessment of Forage Productivity and Livestockwildlife Competition over Utilization of Alpine Pastures in Hushe and Thallay Valleys of Baltistan

The present study was conducted to assess the vegetation cover, productivity, carrying capacity in the alpine rangelands of Gilgit-Baltistan. The assessment of the population of domestic ungulates, wild ungulates and their habitat characteristics was also carried out. At the end the diet composition and diet selection of wild ungulates and domestic small ruminants for important fodder resources were assessed, so that the severity of grazing pressures on these rangelands could be assessed. A model was developed in the area of competition keeping in view the availability and preferences of livestock and wild ungulates for the future sustainable use of rangeland resources. The study was conducted during July and August of 2012-13; diet competition was assessed during the winter season of the same year. The line transect method was used to assess the cover and productivity of rangelands. A total of 1320 quadrats were selected in both the Hushe and Thallay valleys in 2012 and 2013. Cover abundance of the individual species within each quadrat was measured and recorded. The vegetation cover was higher in Thallay Valley, showing coverage over 60% area, while the Hushe Valley showed 36% area covered by vegetation, however, the productivity of the Hushe range was relatively higher (275.5 Kg/ha) than in the Thallay Valley (240.5 Kg/ha). Within the vegetation cover distribution, the Hushe range was mainly dominated by forb (22.38%); the Thallay Valley was also dominated with forb (25.42%), in which Artemisia was dominant. This means the palatable species has been replaced by less palatable and drought resistant species due to the combined effect of overgrazing and environmental factors. In Hushe Valley, the average carrying capacity was found as 19 hectare/Animal. Unit/5 months. In Thallay Valley, the average carrying capacity was found as 16 hectare/Animal.Unit/5 xxiv months. This extremely low productivity and carrying capacity of range shows the critical condition of range sites in the valleys due to heavy grazing by livestock and climatic factors, specifically rain fall and soil characteristics such as organic matter and soil phosphorus. A livestock survey was conducted to check the grazing pressure with a semi structured questionnaire and the type of livestock was noted in each village. For assessment of Capra ibex in Hushe, two permanent trails - one upstream (7 km) from Hushe village to Dumsum Junction and one downstream (5 km) from Hushe village to Hushe Bridge - were established along the Hushe River. In Hushe Valley, the average livestock holdings per household were 17.14 animals. In Thallay Valley, the average livestock holding size was 15.25 animals per household. The number of dzomo per household has decreased because of the changing trend from agriculture to employment. The dzomo needs to be grazed on the pasture because of their grazing behavior which people can’t afford due to their jobs. The grazing period was dependent upon climatic condition and the harsh winter was a factor to control livestock numbers in both valleys. The population density of Himalayan Ibex was 3.44 animal / km2 during winters in the Hushe Valley. In winter, ibex come down to the surroundings of the main Hushe Nallah (3000-3600 m) for grazing, due to a shortage of grasses at higher altitude because of snow cover. The number of ibex seems to be increasing due to non-interferences of human beings. The average number of trophy size ibex was 3.54 in each of studied locations. This study revealed that the number of hunting licenses may need to be increased for the sustainable conservation of ibex and co-existence of both livestock and ibex, and to reduce the pressure on rangeland grasses. xxv For the assessment of competition, a total of 150 faecal pellets were collected. Each of 50 samples for Himalayan Ibex (hereafter referred to as ibex), domestic goat and domestic sheep (hereafter referred to as goat and sheep) were collected from Hushe Valley during the winter season from November 2012 to February 2013. The images of faecal fragments were compared with the plant reference photomicrographs. Frequency occurrence, relative importance value (RIV) and diet selection value (DSV) were calculated to estimate the diet overlap between the wild ungulates and domestic ungulates and thus to measure their overall diet similarity. The present study revealed that the shrub Rosa webbiana is the most preferred plant species in winter for ibex, goat and sheep with the highest diet selection values. The Salix illensis is also an important source of food for sheep and goat. The Artemisia bravifolia shows considerable contribution to the diet of ibex. The diet overlap index between ibex and goat was calculated as 0.86. The diet overlap index between ibex and sheep was 0.85, whereas the diet overlap index between sheep and goat was 0.96. The value of ( ) is closer to each other and closer to 1.00, which showed potential of competition among all species in winter season. This high diet overlap in winter was due to the downward movement of ibex in winter to search for food. The livestock also graze during day time in the surrounding areas therefore there is a possibility of high competition for the available forage in winter season. The results of the present study revealed that there is a high amount of pressure on the lower rangeland resources in winter seasons, as livestock graze in the lower ranges more frequently