۲-اسمائے استفہام
عربی ز بان میں ایسے اسماء جو کسی چیز کے بارے میں سوال کرنے کے لیے استعمال ہوتے ہیں انہیں ’’اسمائے استفہام ‘‘کہتے ہیں، جن کی تعداد نو ہے، قرآن مجیدمیں درج ذیل مقامات پر ان اسما کا استعمال ہوا ہے مثلاً:
Religion Islam has given equal rights to men and women in the field of education. For men education was compulsory and women were encouraged to seek education. Both males and females have been referred to using polygamous section for education while women are often encouraged and especially emphasized. The Prophet(SAW)arranged special seats for the gender critical in order to highlight the importance of women education. That was way the passion for special education in women grew so much that women discussed global issues with men and solved to reject men’s judgement. It was the influence of this academic moment that many Muslim women not only made a name for themselves, but also wrote books on various research topic in the field of Hadith, Commentary, Iftaa and many other Sciences. Thanks for this global revolution Muslim rulers not only provided a learning environment for their children but also established large educational institutions for ordinary women. The astonishing thing is that despite this wonderful past today Muslims are unable to provide a safe and secure opportunity for education to women.
Tuberculosis, diabetes and epilepsy are the diseases requiring prolonged treatment by certain drugs. Unfortunately their toxic effects sometimes decline the standards of life of the patients in terms of physical and psychological well being. Hepatic toxicity of rifampin, phenytoin, sulfonylureas and carbamazepine cannot be neglected in this regard. These drugs may reduce the efficiency of liver to a large extent. Therefore it is important to consider an adjuvant for this purpose as these drugs cannot be compromised in term of doses, dosage forms or responses. The study has been planned to see the beneficial role of altering liver blood flow in reducing the toxicity of drugs. Propranolol is a non selective beta adrenergic receptor antagonist which reduces the hepatic blood flow. It is scientific to believe that it can reduce the amount of hepatotoxic drug in liver by reducing the hepatic blood flow thereby reducing the DILI. The hepatotoxicity of these drugs with or without propranolol in term of anatomical changes, enzymatic assay, qualitative and quantitative histopathological studies and electron microscopy were evaluated. In this study significant number of healthy rabbits were used which will be divided into nine different groups from A to H. Calculated dose of all four drugs were given to the assigned groups of rabbits with or without propranolol as per dosing schedule. Group A was considered as control and received distilled water only while group B and C were received CBZ alone and in combination of propranolol, respectively. Liver function test and histological evaluation by H and E staining and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were carried at the end of dosing by using standard procedures. Serum level of ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin were significantly (p<0.05) increased in CBZ treated group as compared to control while not significantly elevated in CBZ plus propranolol treated groups. But significant reduction in hepatic parameters was seen in CBZ plus propranolol vi group as compared to CBZ alone. The histopathological examination revealed various features of hepatic architecture damage in CBZ treated group. These results were also supported by micrometry and SEM. The hepatic damage induced by CBZ was successfully ameliorated by propranolol. The hepatic architecture was effectively recovered in propranolol and CBZ treated group which showed in Hand E staining and SEM. Group D and E received rifampicin (RIF) alone and in combination of propranolol respectively. Similar parameters were used to explore the hepatoxic effects of RIF and protection was given by propranolol. Results of liver function test revealed that RIF significantly elevate the serum levels of ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin as compared to control. These levels were also higher in RIF plus propranolol treated group but when comparing the levels in between group D and E it was illustrated that propranolol provide significant protection to the RIF induced damage. Histology and SEM of liver sections also supported these results. Liver damage induced by RIF expressed as central vein dilation, infiltration of inflammatory cells, portal vein dilation and damage of hepatocytes. Micrometry revealed that number of viable hepatocytes, their diameter and nuclear diameter were altered.SEM micrograph showed distorted and swollen hepatic cords. All of these changes successfully turned to normal by combined administration of propranolol. propranolol successfully improve the hepatic architecture proved by both qualitative and quantitative microscopy. Glibenclamide (GLB) alone or in combination of propraranolol was administered in Group F and G respectively. Serum levels of ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin were estimated and compared in both groups. Results showed that GLB caused significant elevation of liver functions as compared to control. There values of ALT and ALP were significantly high in vii group G as compare to control.When comparing these levels between group G and F significant elevations were seen in group F which showed that propranolol reduced the level of serum ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin when administered with GLB. The granuloma and necrosis seen in GLB treated liver was not seen in group G rabbit’s liver. The number of viable hepatocytes and their nuclear diameter which were considerably reduced by GLB were effectively preserved to normal after administering propranolol as adjuvant. Thus histological evaluation of liver tissue through H and E staining and SEM showed that combined administration of GLB and propranolol is helpful in reducing the GLB induced liver damage. Group H and I received phenytoin (PHT) alone and in combination with propranolol, respectively. Evaluation of hepatic functions test expressed that the serum levels of ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin were significantly raised in PHT treated group. Serum levels of ALT, ALP, γGT and bilirubin were also significantly high in PHT and propranolol treated group as compared to control. When comparing the values between these two groups it was illustrated that propranolol offered significant protection to the liver. Histological examination of Hand E stained liver tissue showed that PHT caused severe hepatic damage expressed as necrosis, hemorrhage and dilation of sinusoids, inflammation and dilation and congestion of portal vein. Combined administration of propranolol and PHT reduced these changes induced by PHT alone. The micrometric estimation of H and E stained section of live supported the above mentioned results.Minor inflammatory cells were seen and necrosis is absent in liver section of group I rabbits. SEM of liver of group H also showed damage and ruptured hepatic cords with cellular swelling. Protection provided by viii propranolol also expressed through this technique. Propranolol improved the hepatic architecture clearly seen in the SEM micrograph of group I rabbit. It is summarized that all of the aforementioned drugs produced threatened effect on the liver. Propranolol is an approved treatment of portal hypertension and esophageal varices in cirrhotic patient. This effect of propranolol is due to reduction in hepatic blood flow. Propranolol offered beneficial effect in drug induced hepatoxicity may be due to its diminution of portal blood flow thus reducing the supply of noxious substance to the liver. Propranolol may also ameliorate drug induced liver disease due to its affect on cytochrome P450 or due to owing antioxidant action.