Rights of Non-Muslim Minorities in a Muslim Country in the Light of Qur’an and Sunnah

The Issue of the rights of non-Muslim minorities in Muslim countries has been one of the most burning issues in this era. It has been highlighted by both Muslim and non-Muslim writers that they are mistreated in Muslim countries. This paper discusses the rights of non-Muslims in a Muslim country in the light of Quran, Sunnah and Islamic history. These rights are the protection of rights and freedom of belief, right to protection of property, honour, assurance of disability, poverty and old age, right of freedom in religion, language and culture, work and profession in government services, equal rights in the society and justice. It will be shown that in Muslim countries, all non-Muslim minorities have their equal rights and same citizen status. This paper ends by providing some suggestions in solving contemporary non-Muslim problems in Muslim countries.

Enhancing the Production of Bio-Methane Through Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Crop Residues by Various Pre-Treatments

The importance of renewable energy generation and management waste strategic issues are increasing day to day. Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) has gained increasing attention as a renewable energy source and approach for minimizing organic waste at the same time. Globally, huge amount of animal manure and crop residues (CRs) as organic wastes are produced every year. Animal manure are the excellent source of biogas production due to containing various species of microbes and nutrients but low in biochemical methane potential (BMP). In order to improve the potential of bio-methane and balancing the carbon to nitrogen ratio, the CRs can be mixed with BD through co-digestion process. Normally, CRs are difficult to biodegrade in the anaerobic reactors. Pretreatment is simple and economical approach for degradation. The most common utilized pretreatments are mechanical, chemical and biological. Addition of catalysts or nanoparticles in anaerobic digesters for degrading the CRs and increasing methane production have also received great attention nowadays. BMP test experiments are most useful technique for comparing the optimal pretreatment and co-digestion methane production. Currently, efforts were made to evaluate the effect of favorable pretreatment prior to use in anaerobic codigestion mixing ratios of CRs and BD. In this research study, three different CRs namely canola straw (CS), rice straw (RS) and banana plant waste (BPW) were selected for chemical, biological and catalyst pretreatments with BD. The results of methane production were calculated in ml/gVS. In the first phase, the chemical pretreatment was categorized in H2O2 and Ca(OH)2. About five different concentrations were applied to pretreat of selected CRs prior to AD and then methane potential was compared. Maximum methane yield from RS, CS and BPW with BD, by the H2O2 pretreatments were observed as 331.6, 386.8 and 150.4. Whereas, as highest methane potential from RS, CS and BPW with BD, by the Ca(OH)2 pretreatments were optimized as 346.7, 417.3 and 284.3 respectively. In the second phase, the catalyst pretreatment was categorized in Fe3O4 and SiO2. The five dosages were used to additive in the three CRs with BD prior to AD process and then methane potential was compared. The maximum methane potential of Fe3O4 treatment, from RS, CS and BPW with BD obtained as 156.6, 234.2 and 162.4. Whereas, the highest methane potential of SiO2, from RS, CS and BPW with optimized as 218.0, 254.2 and 165.6 respectively. Moreover, in the third phase, the biological pretreatment was categorized in Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus and Pleurotus ostreatus. Each fungal pretreatments were carried out in three incubation time (7, 15 and 30 day) on RS, CS and BPW with BD before to AD and then methane potential was compared. The optimal methane potential of A. niger pretreatment, from RS, CS and BPW with BD determined as 181.3, 196.8 and 197.1. And the maximum methane potential of A. terreus, from RS, CS, and BPW with BD obtained as 204.7, 219.1 and 186.5. Whereas, the optimal methane potential of P.osteratus, from RS, CS, and BPW with BD observed as 230.2, 238.6 and 207.4 respectively. Among the above various pretreatments, analyzed that Ca(OH)2 pretreatment was most favorable for enhancement of methane yield to run in the CSTR. In the fourth phase, based on great methane potential the RS and CS with BD were selected for CSTR at different HRTs considering 30, 25, 20 and 15 days. From all these, the HRT 20 d was optimized from both CSTRs named as Reactor-A (RS to BD) and Reactor-B (CS to BD). The maximum methane production 262.7 and 330.8 ml/gVS was determined respectively.Furthermore, the optimal HRT 20 day was again operated at different OLRs (2.66, 3.66, 4.16 and 4.66 gVS/L/d) in two reactors A and B. The results indicated that highest methane yield of 371.5 ml/gVS was determined from Reactor-B at 4.16 gVS/L/d succeed by Reactor-A at 3.66 gVS/L/d having 291.7 ml/gVS methane yield.In addition, in the last phase, the S-Gompertz model was applied on specific methane yields to simulate the experimental results during different phases of the HRTs and OLRs. Simulated results from the applied model indicates that pretreated the crop residues with BD into anaerobic digester remarkably increased the methane yield.The conclusion of current study would be beneficial for professionals and policy makers to decide that which pretreatment prior to anaerobic digestion would be favorable for enhancing the production of bioenergy (methane) through AcoD. The findings of study lead to recommend that biomass waste to renewable energy concept should be promoted in the country (Pakistan) for sustainable environment and economic growth.