تعارف:
اردو کے یہ منفرد روایت شکن، ترقی پسند شاعر یکم اگست 1910ء میں علی پور چٹھہ، ضلع گوجرانوالہ میں پیدا ہوئے۔ ان کا اصل نام راجا نذر محمد تھا۔ اور تاریخی نام " خضر" تھا۔ آج اردو ادب کی جدید تاریخ ن م راشد کے ذکر کے بغیرنا مکمل ہے۔ وہ جدید شاعری میں آزاد نظم کے بانی، علامت نگاری کی تحریک، نفی دانش کے اولین مشعل بردار ہیں۔
پہلا مجموعہ کلام:
اردو شاعری کو روایتی تنگنائے سے نکال کر بین الاقوامی دھارے میں شامل کرنے کا سہرا ن م راشد اور میرا جی کے سر جاتا ہے۔ 1942ء میں ن م راشد کا پہلا مجموعہ ’ماورا‘ شائع ہوا جو نہ صرف اردو آزاد نظم کا پہلا مجموعہ ہے بلکہ یہ جدید شاعری کی پہلی کتاب بھی ہے۔ ماورا سے اردو شاعری میں انقلاب بپا ہو گیا،اور یہ انقلاب صرف صنفِ سخن یعنی آزاد نظم کی حد تک نہیں تھا، کیوں کہ تصدق حسین خالد پہلے ہی آزاد نظمیں لکھ چکے تھے، لیکن راشد نے اسلوب، موضوعات اور پیش کش کی سطح پر بھی اجتہاد کیا۔
فیض اور راشد:
ن م راشد کا تقابل اکثر فیض احمد فیض کے ساتھ کیا جاتا ہے، لیکن صاف ظاہر ہے کہ نہ صرف فیض کے موضوعات محدود ہیں بلکہ ان کی فکر کا دائرہ بھی راشد کے مقابلے پر تنگ ہے۔ ساقی فاروقی بیان کرتے ہیں :
" فیض نے خود اعتراف کیا تھا کہ وہ راشد کی طرح نظمیں نہیں لکھ سکتے کیوں کہ راشد کا ذہن ان سے کہیں بڑا ہے۔"
فیض اور راشد میں ایک قدرِ مشترک یہ بھی ہے کہ دونوں ترقی پسند شاعروں کے مجموعے دوسری جنگِ عظیم سے پہلے شائع ہوگئے تھے۔ راشد کی ماورا 1940ء اور فیض کی نقشِ فریادی 1941ء میں۔ ماورا نہ صرف اردو آزاد نظم بلکہ جدید اردو...
It is important to know that how the whole system of Madrasah education was evolved and what were various trends which contributed in shaping the whole system of religious Education in the Muslim world, particularly. I this article I will be presenting a comparative analysis of some important Religious Education systems prevalent in prominent Muslim Countries to demonstrate that how same institutions can develop on different lines due to application of certain approaches by state. Here I will be making a comparison of five Muslim countries namely Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Under this comparison I would try to illustrate briefly that how different contexts actually shape and direct the overall approach, methodology and pedagogical methods of these institutions. And I will try Here I will make comparison of four major religious education institutions working in four different Muslim countries namely
No one can ignore the importance of diagrams in the textbooks specifically for the children. In the present era of technology, the importance of diagrams has increased many folds due to presentation of diagrams in different dimensions like Three Dimensional (3 – D) diagrams. No worthwhile study has so far been conducted in Pakistan regarding any role of 3 – D diagrams in learning. The present study aims to determine the age categories of the Pakistani children / students of year 6 – 8 from which they understand 3 – D diagrams to minimum and maximum extent. So that, textbook writers, developers and publishers could be suggested for introducing 3 – D diagrams in the textbooks at a very particular age in near future for the children of year 6 - 8. In-time introduction of 3 – D diagrams can make the Pakistani children more compatible at national and international level in the present scenario. For this purpose a perception test was designed for Pakistani children on the basis of a model given by Nicholson and Seddon (1977). The test was administered twice for pilot study on the advice of the panel of experts. The finalized Urdu version of the test was administered to 7212 students of class II, III, and IV in 15 tehsils of five districts of Punjab after motivating the students by administering a standardized non-verbal test of Raven (1989). Out of 7212 students 1996 only were found within the prescribed range of the age of year 6 – 8. The selected students (1996) were classified into 13 different categories with respect to their age, sex, residential area, parental education and income. Each age-year was further distributed on month-wise bases. The scores obtained by the students in the perception test were interpreted as corresponding level of understanding of 3 – D diagrams after computing month-wise average scores of each category of year – 6, 7, and 8. Month-wise averages were also computed on sex-wise and students-wise bases (including both sexes i.e. boys + girls). This pattern of analysis was maintained for all types of distribution of the sample, such as residential area-wise, parental education and income-wise. Moreover, overall averages were also computed for all students, each year, and each sex and for all types of distribution of the sample. Significant or insignificant difference between the means of different distributions was also determined. Such as, significant difference in understanding was recorded between rural boys and rural girls. The statistical analysis pointed out a low level understanding of 3 – D diagrams due to minimum average scores obtained by all the three age groups which reflected that the perception test was slightly difficult test. A similar pattern of better but gradual increased understanding was recorded in overall average scores obtained by the students xvii of year 6 – 8. Similar pattern of slightly better understanding of 3 – D diagrams was also reflected due to relatively higher scores obtained by the sampled rural students from year 6 – 8. Gradually decreasing overall average scores reflected a gradually decreasing trend of low understanding by all the three age groups of urban boys. Age-wise a gradual increase in understanding of 3-D diagrams was also recorded among sampled students, boys and girls of year 6 and 7. Average scores of boys and girls of year 6 and 7 reflected that understanding of girls about 3 – D diagrams was comparatively better than the understanding of the boys of the same age groups. Overall average scores of the students from uneducated families reflected slightly better understanding than that of the students from educated families. Overall average scores of the students from above average income group families reflected slightly better understanding than the students from below average income group families. Z test highlighted significant differences between the mean scores of rural boys vs. rural girls, urban boys vs. urban girls of year – 7; and total boys vs. total girls. The results of item analysis proved the effectiveness of all distracters of the perception test. Only two items were not differentiating between high achievers and low achievers. All of the items need to be re-arranged logically with respect to the vales of ‘p’, few difficult items can be replaced with easy items age-wise allocated items be administered for standardization. After rearranging the sequence of the items, two most difficult and two easiest items should be dropped and rest of the thirty six items should be classified into three age groups equally. First twelve items should be allocated for year – 6 next twelve for year – 7, and last twelve for year – 8.