موضوع 10:اردو زبان کا آغاز و ارتقا
کسی زبان کے آغاز اور ارتقاء کی داستان کچھ مخصوص تہذیبی اور معاشرتی حالات سے جڑی ہوتی ہے۔ زبان اپنی ترقی یافتہ شکل اختیار کرنے سے پہلے مختلف مراحل سے گزرتی ہے۔ اسے رنگ و روپ دینے اور نکھارنے میں مختلف عوامل کار فرما ہوتے ہیں۔ اردو زبان جو آج کی چند ترقی یافتہ اور کثرت سے بولی جانے والی زبانوں میں سے ایک ہے اسے بھی معرض وجود میں آنے سے قبل مختلف مراحل سے گزرنا پڑا۔ ان مختلف مراحل اور تہذیبی اور معاشرتی عوامل کو سمجھنے کے لئے ہمیں ماضی کی طرف پلٹنا ضروری ہے۔
جیسا کہ تاریخ کے مطالعے سے پتہ چلتا ہے کہ ہندوستان کے قدیم باشندے دراوڑ تھے۔آریا قوم باہر سے آئی اور مقامی باشندوں کو پیچھے دھکیل کر ملک پر قابض ہو گئی۔آریا قوم ملک پر ایک نئی تہذیبی طاقت بن کر ابھری۔ ان کی زبان کو مرکزی حیثیت حاصل ہوئی۔ مقامی باشندوں سے میل جول کی وجہ سے آریاؤں کی زبان متاثر ہونے لگی اور بہت سے الفاظ کا تلفظ کچھ سے کچھ ہو گیا۔ آریاؤں نے اپنی زبان کو محفوظ رکھنے کے خیال سے اسے قواعدی اصولوں سے جکڑ دیا اور اپنی زبان میں صرف ٹکسالی الفاظ باقی رکھے۔مقامی اثرات اس سے پاک و صاف ہو کر ان کی زبان نے اپنا ایک معیار برقرار رکھا اور اسی معیاری زبان کو سنسکرت کا نام دیا گیا۔
اس زبان کو کافی فروغ حاصل ہوا لیکن اس کا رشتہ عوام سے کٹ گیا گیا اور ایک مخصوص دائرے تک سمٹ کر رہ گئی۔ عوام کی زبان مختلف علاقوں میں تھوڑے سے فرق کے ساتھ ایک رسم الخط میں موجود رہیں اس زبان کو پراکرت کا نام دیا گیا۔ پراکرت زبان برابر ترقی کرتی رہی اور مختلف علاقوں میں مختلف روپ اختیار کرتی رہی۔ آگے...
Indonesian national low productivity of salt which is unequal between the need level and salt consumption eventually results in salt import made mainly to meet the industrial needs. The government through the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries has released a Public Salt Business Empowering Program (known as PUGAR/Pemberdayaan Usaha Garam Rakyat). PUGAR is an empowering program focusing on the improvement of job opportunities and welfare for salt farmers/managers to achieve the self-sufficiency of salt for consumptions and industries. This research aims at examining the influence of salt business empowering program on the salt farmers’ income improvement in Kedungmalang village of Jepara Regency; the implementation level of salt business empowering program in Kedungmutih Village of Demak Regency when compared to that in Kedungmalang Village of Jepara Regency; and the influence of salt business empowering program on the salt farmers’ income improvement in Kedungmutih village of Demak regency. The research was conducted using a descriptive method with a case study approach. The program implementation was quantitatively analyzed. Furthermore, the effectiveness of PUGAR on income was analyzed using T-test. The test result showed that there were income differences in Kedungmutih and Kedungmalang Village before and after the implementation of PUGAR. This finding showed that PUGAR was proven as an effective program to improve the salt farmers’ welfare through income improvement.
Foreign private investment (FPI) is the favorite domain not only for developed nations but also the developing countries. There were found many theories related to the foreign private investment. The institutional theory of foreign private investment states that institutions of the host country play important role in attracting the inflow of foreign private investment. It is believe that sound institutional performance and better macroeconomic management are keys to attract foreign private investment. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of institutional performance and macroeconomic management on foreign private investment in Pakistan. To achieve this objective, study used secondary data ranging from 1984 to 2013. The data regarding institutional performance was extracted from International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) website and data regarding macroeconomic management and foreign private investment were extracted from World Development Indicators (WDI) website. The study employed the descriptive statistic, correlation analysis, graphical analysis and stationarity analysis techniques to have primary investigation. To achieve the main objective of the study, firstly the regression analysis was employed to find the impact of explanatory variables on the dependent variable. To study the long run and short run behavior of the variables, study employed the cointegration test, autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model and error correction mechanism (ECM). The Granger causality test is also applied in order to investigate the cause and effect relationship among the variables.The study concluded that the better institutional performance has a significant positive impact of foreign private investment inflow in Pakistan. The institutional performance indicators including government stability, investment profile, lowering external conflicts and bureaucratic quality have a significant positive impact on foreign private investment inflow. The study also concluded that the sound macroeconomic management including interest rate, per capita gross domestic product and natural resources has a significant positive impact of foreign private investment inflow. The findings from the cointegration test concluded that the institutional performance and macroeconomic management have a long run co-integrated relationship among them. The findings from the ARDL model concluded that institutional performance, per capita GDP and natural resources have a significant positive long run elasticities affecting foreign private investment. The findings from the error correction mechanism (ECM) concluded that there is a long run convergence ability in the model to create equilibrium in the economy. The findings from the Granger causality analysis concluded that institutional performance, macroeconomic management and foreign private investment have a bi-directional relationship between them. On the basis of findings of the study it is suggested that the government and its institutions concerned to the foreign investment especially board of investment must focus on the institutional performance and macroeconomic management of the country to improve the inflow of FPI. It is also recommended for future research that one can use political, economic and financial risk analysis as well as composite macroeconomic management index for studying inflow of FPI.