The British Colonial Encounter with the Pukhtuns: An Appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s Struggle against the British Raj (1936-1947)

The North-West Frontier region of the British Empire in India during the Great Game was part of the ‘Ring Fence Strategy’, framed by the Raj against its adversaries and rivals in Central and South Asia. To protect her ‘Jewel in the Crown’- India, the British Raj made several moves in the strategically placed Pukhtun1 land. The Pukhtun populace, adherent to their centuries old code of conduct, Puḳhtūnwali, consistently resisted the British encroachment of their territory. Mirza Ali Khan, popularly known as Faqir Ippi, was one of the many freedom fighters who challenged the imperialist power in this region. Taking notice of Islam Bibi’s case, a Hindu Convert, Faqir Ippi mobilized the Pukhtuns of Waziristan in defying and fighting the British. He was a serious contestant to the British authority with his well-known fighting skills, effective planning and guerilla tactics in one of the most difficult terrains. The entire Tribal Belt, especially Waziristan, proved to be a ‘turbulent frontier’ for nearly eleven years, i.e. 1936-1947. This insurgency started bringing bad name to the crown and encouraging others to rise against the British. To contain and end Faqir Ippi’s resistance, Governor George Cunningham hired the locals to instigate and bribe his followers to rise and fight against him. The aim of this paper is a critical evaluation of the British strategy in this region and an appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s response and assessment of how successful he was in invigorating Pukhtun resistance to defend their motherland, using both colonial and local sources.

Sustainable Management of Spotted Bollworms, Earias Vittella Fabricius and Earias Insulana Boisduval , Lepidoptera: Noctuidae on Okra, Abelmoschus Esculentus L. in Punjab, Pakistan

The studies were conducted to determine the resistant/susceptible responses based on fruit and shoot infestation (%) in various okra genotypes against Earias vittella (Fab.) and E. insulana (Boisd.) under field conditions during 2006 and 2007. From the preliminary screening trial during 2006, among 30 genotypes of okra Parbani kranti (18.93%), Pusa sawani (17.89%), and Ikra-1 (17.32%) appeared as susceptible while Diksha (8.17%) and Sabz pari (8.36%) appeared as resistant based on fruit infestation were selected for final screening trial during 2007. Almost similar results were observed regarding shoot infestation caused by Earias spp. in different genotypes of okra during 2006. Maximum fruit infestation during 2007 was 19.73 followed by 18.49 percent on Parbani kranti and minimum (10.46 percent) was observed on Diksha, whereas maximum shoot infestation was on Parbani kranti (35.43) and minimum was found on Diksha (12.74 percent). On an average basis of both years’ studies, the maximum HPSI based on fruit infestation was recorded to be 16 percent each on Parbani kranti and the genotype Diksha was proved to be comparatively resistant with minimum HPSI i.e., 7 percent. The genotype Diksha were again found to be resistant based on shoot infestation with minimum HPSI i.e. 6 percent while maximum HPSI (15 percent) was observed each in Parbani kranti, Pusa sawai and Ikra-1, (15 %) and appeared as comparatively resistant and susceptible genotypes, respectively. All the weather factors showed significant correlation with the fruit infestation during both year studies as well as on average basis except minimum temperature during 2006 which had non significant effect on the fruit infestation fluctuation. Maximum temperature, minimum temperature and average temperatures showed positive effect whereas relative humidity and rainfall exerted negative correlation on the fruit infestation during 2006 and 2007 separately as well as on cumulative basis. Multiple Linear Regression Models revealed that maximum temperature was the most important factor which contributed maximum for fruit and shoot infestation i.e. 60.50 and 53.20% for average of both the study years, respectively. The impact of all the factors on an average of both the study years when computed together was found to be 67.00 and 55.50%, for fruit and shoot infestation, respectively. Amongst various physio-morphic plant characters, ten fruit weight, fruit yield per plant and fruit length showed negative and significant correlation with the fruit infestationcaused by Earias spp. on okra, whereas hair density on midrib, hair length on vein, hair density on lamina and thickness of leaf lamina exerted positive and significant correlation on the fruit infestation. Plant height, number of primary branches, leaf moisture, hair length on midrib, hair density on vein, hair length on lamina, hair density and length on fruits, leaf area and fruit weight showed non significant correlation with the fruit infestation. Amongst chemical plant characters, crude protein, nitrogen, total lipids, reducing sugars, non reducing sugars, cellulose, lignin, NDF, total minerals, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and copper had significant and positive correlation with the fruit infestation whereas manganese and zinc contents in the fruits of okra showed negative and significant correlation with the fruit infestation. Hemi cellulose and ADF showed non significant correlation with the fruit infestation. Multivariate linear regression models revealed that hair density on midrib was the most important physical character which showed significantly negative impact and contributed 42.7 % role in the fluctuation of fruit infestation followed by ten fruit weight, fruit yield per plant, hair density on lamina, hair length on vein and hair length on lamina with 31.4, 15.5, 0.8, 0.5, and 0.1 % contribution, respectively. The 100 R 2 values were observed to be 91.0 when the effect of all the physio-morphic plant characters analyzed together. Crude protein was the most important character which showed positive and significant impact in the fluctuation of fruit infestation and contributed 79.9% role followed by reducing sugars with 12.6 % role in fluctuation of fruit infestation caused by Earias spp. on okra. Various practices viz. release of Trichogramma, weeding/hoeing, neem extract, hand picking and spray of Tracer for the control of Earias spp. were applied singly and in their possible combinations in the research areas of PARS, UAF and ERI, Faisalabad during 2007 on a resistant genotype of Okra (Diksha). All the treatments showed significant difference with one another on fruit and shoot infestation caused by Earias spp. on okra. Hand picking and spray of Tracer was found to be the most effective resulted in minimum fruit infestation i.e. 7.87% followed by the spray of Tracer only with 8.37% fruit infestation as against 25.46% in control treatment. Spray of Tracer showed minimum shoot infestation i.e. 11.26% followed by T11 (hand picking + spray of Tracer) with 12.52% shoot infestation. Application of hand picking + neem extract and Tracer resulted in maximum increase in yield over control i.e. 56.61 kg/ha and found to be the most benefited to the farmers with actual CBR of 1:20.28.