''قانون بین الاقوام کی بنیادیں عہد اسلامی میں''ایک تحقیقی جائزہ '' Foundations of International Law in the Islamic era '' (An Exploratory review)

Human nature has become collectivist. And man's survival is in living together and fulfilling the necessities of life through mutual cooperation. As a result, a system of mutual relation is formed; the state has relation with the other state just as the individual has relations with the individual. If there is no balance and harmony in this relationship, then mutual conflict and tension is natural. In fact, international law has its beginnings from the Islamic era. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) conveyed the universal message of the Islamic State throughout the world through his foreign Strategy and diplomatic letters. Away from the concept of globalization, the importance of foreign relations has become more important in modern times. Therefore, just as it is necessary for the Islamic state to harmonize with the world conditions and events according to the requirements of the modern era, it is also necessary for the Islamic state to keep its ideological position in mind in all situations. So that the foreign strategy of the Islamic State is established on strong foundations and its principles are formulated in the light of International Law and Sharia. Keywords: International Law, Foreign Policy, Foundations, Islamic era 

A Study of the Relationship Between School Affinity and Academic Achievement of Students at Secondary Level

School and education are the major parts in the life of a student. School plays a leading role to enhance the quality of education. The quality of education is generally measured in the form of a student‘s achievement. The concept of a student‘s achievement depends on the various factors from home to school as has been investigated by previous researches. The concept of students‘ achievements depends on school-affinity that should also be very strong. The current study aims at examine the relationship between schoolaffinity and academic achievement of students at secondary level. For this purpose, an indigenous School-Affinity Scale (SAS) was developed to measure the relationship between school-affinity and its academic achievement. The principal component of analysis (PCA) of school-affinity scale propounded by Varimax reveals six factors of school-affinity which are affinity with; teacher''s personality and profile, school status, affinity with school as a result of school records, peer-group, co-operative learning activities and school management. A standardized procedure was adopted to develop and translate the scale through two phases: Urdu and English version. The psychometric properties yielded SAS a reliable and valid measure. The alpha reliability for the total scale was 0.85. After the finalization of research tool, nine of the items which were not clustered on any factors (item loadings < .35) were excluded from the scale and finally SAS was retained with 31 items. After this, the questionnaire was administered to the students of 1,040 secondary schools of public and private sectors. Multi-stage random sampling technique was selected to choose sample for the study. To collect data, 1,040 schools were selected from 130 selected Tehsils of Punjab province. Questionnaire was administered (irrespective of their gender, discipline and rural and urban divide, belonging to public and private sector of secondary schools) to the students of 10th class by all the Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISEs) in 2015. Collected data with coding scheme of Likert rating scale of 4-point ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4) was put into SPSS, Version 20. Relationship of school-affinity and demographic variables on academic achievement of students at secondary level were calculated by the use of bivariate factors of Pearson Correlation coefficients at the significant level of 0.05 and 0.01. Independent samples t-test and one way ANOVA followed as a post–Hoc Tests by Bonferroni was used in multiple comparisons. Findings reveal that there is a significant relationship among the subscales of school-affinity and academic achievement. However, it is found that school management has no significant difference with academic achievement of students at secondary level. It was also concluded that demographic information of respondents also played a major role to improve the academic achievement of secondary school students. The current study also suggested further investigations of other school factors that influence the academic achievement of students.