تنقید کی بہت زیادہ اقسام ہیں اور یہ اقسام با ہم بہت قریب ہیں۔اسی وجہ سے انسان اکثر مغالطے کا شکار ہو جاتا ہے اور ان کو باہم گڈ مڈ کردیتاہے۔تنقید کی درج ذیل اقسام زیادہ اہم ہیں۔
• مارکسی تنقید • استقرائی تنقید
• تجزیاتی تنقید • رومانی تنقید
• سائنسی تنقید • عمرانی تنقید
• نظریاتی تنقید • ہیئتی تنقید
• جمالیاتی تنقید • نفسیاتی تنقید
1۔مارکسی تنقید:
جب کارل مارکس کے اشتراکی نظریات عام ہوئے تو ادبی دنیا میں بھی ان نظریات کی صدائے بازگشت سنائی دینے لگی۔اس طرح تنقید کا ایک نظریہ اور دبستان وجود میں آگیا۔یہ دراصل کارل مارکس اور اس کے مقلدین کے اشتراکی افکار تھے۔اسے اشتراکی تنقید یا مارکسی تنقید کہا جاتا ہے۔مارکسی نقاد 'ادب برائے زندگی' کے قائل ہیں۔مارکسی تنقید کے حوالے سے پروفیسر احتشام حسین کہتے ہیں:
"ادب کی یہ حیثیت کہ اس میں سماجی حقائق اپنی طبقاتی شکل میں ظاہر ہوتے ہیں اور ادیب کے سماجی رجحان کا پتہ اس کے خیالات سے چلتا ہے۔ادیب زندگی کی کشمکش میں شریک ہو کراسے بہتر بنانے کی راہ بتا سکتا ہے۔اشتراکی حقیقت نگاری اور مارکسی تنقید میں سب سے نمایاں شکل میں یہی نظر آتا ہے۔جو نقاد اس نظریہ تنقید کو اپناتے ہیں وہ روح عصر ، سماجی نفسیات،عمرانیات یعنی ان تمام باتوں پر نگاہ رکھتے ہیں جو طبقاتی سماج میں پیداوار کیمعاشی بنیادوں کے اوپر فکری اور فلسفیانہ حیثیت سے وجود میں آتی ہیں۔"
پروفیسر احتشام حسین کی رائے سے ہم اس نتیجے پر پہنچتے ہیں کہ مارکسی یا اشتراکی تنقید میں ادیب یہ دیکھتا ہے کہ سماجی رجحان کس طرف تھا، اس کے خیالات کیسے تھے، وہ کیسے ماحول میں رہتا تھا،زندگی کے کون سے مسائل سے گزر رہا تھا۔یہ ساری باتیں سامنے رکھتے ہیں۔پاکستان میں مارکسی تنقید کے حوالے سے نمایاں نقاد جنہوں نے شہرت حاصل...
To general public, all videos are perceived to be true, but they may not have probative value in the Court of law. The undertaken article analyzes the admissibility and probative value of a video presented as evidence before a court in the Criminal Justice System of Pakistan (CJSP). It analyzes the relevant law and diagnoses the problems with the video evidence through the lens of the judgments of Superior Courts. The court of law objectively ascertains that a video presented as evidentiary means bears significant relevance to the fact in question. It must be admissible under the law, and it must be proved to be genuine. To fill up the gap between a “Video” and a “Video Evidence”, there is a process, which is known as video authentication. It determines that the video contents are genuine, authentic, credible, unaltered, untampered and unfabricated. The study discusses various modes of video authentication. Precedents set by superior courts of Pakistan show that convictions have been made once the courts are satisfied with the credibility of video evidence. In the court of law, video evidence is normally presented after the completion of prosecution evidence. The video is played in court and is watched by the presence. But the researcher establishes that such process does not have legal justification. The article suggests that it would be legal and proper for the prosecution to produce the video evidence through the witness, during his evidence, who is either victim, witness, recorded and/or copied the video directly from original source such as C.C.T.V system and that witness would be subjected to cross examination.
The work undertaken in the dissertation is of pioneering nature integrating world databases to accrue knowledge about economies and enterprises around the globe. It is an endeavor to demonstrate the adequacy of applying data mining techniques in global databases concealing heaps of knowledge about enterprises engaged in manufacturing and exporting in the global context. A cohesive and coherent exploration of databases from repositories of World Bank, GEM, WEF and IFC’s Enterprise Survey elucidates the patterns of internationalization of enterprises through manufacturing exports in developed and developing economies. We have followed inductive reasoning methodology using symbiosis of statistical modeling and data mining coupled with extensive data visualizations. The exploratory research has asserted the fitness of manufacturing exports as the core engine for economic health of a country. Both Kruskal-Wallis and Chi-square tests affirm that manufacturing export share level is not independent of economy type and, developed economy block shares 77% of world manufacturing exports matching to their share in world GDP. Manufacturing exports per capita for world five economies ranks them exactly analogous to their income-group ranks. The predictive MLR modeling reveals a positive relationship between GDP and manufacturing exports for LMC and UMC economies. LMC economy countries have the prospects of 14% increase in GDP share by unit increase in manufacturing export share. The findings from the global databases regarding economies and enterprises in these economies are in unison. The enterprises of the developing economies (LIC, LMC and UMC) have more inclination towards manufacturing than economies and enterprises of developed (NOC, OEC) block. However, the enterprises of developed economy block lead by a significant margin in terms of exporting and manufacturing exports. The enterprises of LIC economy block portrays an exorbitant despondency in all spheres of activities ranging from manufacturing to exporting with pathetic state of entrepreneurial climate culminating in extreme level of poverty. Enterprises in Pakistan portray a posture identical to other countries of LMC economy. K-means and HCA clustering identify LFE (Large, Foreign and Exporter) enterprises in Pakistan to form one group and align their practices benefiting from information and communication technologies (ICT) to boost and spearhead the internationalization through exports. Both statistical and data mining methodologies work in unison to identify characteristics of a Pakistani SME to be exportable. Registration with original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is a significant key determinant for an enterprise to acquire the exporting status.