عقائد
باب پنجم کے اہم نکات
- یہودی عقائد و عبادات کا تعارف۔
- تصور خدا کی اہمیت۔
- منتخب قوم کے نظریہ کا تعارف۔
- احکام عشرہ اور تیرہ اصول ایمانیات کا تعارف۔
- نبوت، مسیحِ موعود عقیدہ آخرت۔
- قربانی، روزہ، نماز اور صدقہ کا تصور۔
ظاہری طور پر یہودیوں کے پاس ایسا کوئی خاص نظام یا قاعدہ موجود نہیں ہے جس کی رو سے یہ کہا جا سکے کہ وہ کن مخصوص عقائد کی پیروی کرتے ہیں۔ الہامی مذاہب میں خدا پر ایمان لانا ایک بنیادی عقیدہ ہے تاہم "ملحد یہودی" جیسے تصور نے اس عقیدے کو بھی متاثر کیا ہے۔ یہودی خود بھی اس معاملے میں اختلاف کا شکار ہیں کہ کیا رسمی عقیدے جیسی کوئی چیز مذہب میں موجود بھی ہے یا نہیں؟ اس معاملے میں ایک فریق یہ کہتا ہے کہ یہودیت میں عقائد جیسی کوئی چیز نہیں؛ صنہادرین تک نے ایسی کوئی وضاحت پیش نہیں کی جس کی رو سے یہودیت کے بنیادی عقائد کی فہرست مرتب کی جا سکے۔ موسی ابن میمون نے بھی جو تیرہ اساسی اصول مرتب کیے ہیں ان کو تمام یہودی قبول نہیں کرتے۔ اکثر و بیشتر راسخ العقیدہ یہودی ان پر اعتراضات اٹھاتے رہتے ہیں۔ بعض یہ خیال کرتے ہیں کہ وہ اپنے عقائد کی کوئی فہرست مہیا نہیں کر سکتے کیونکہ ان میں عقائد کے معاملات میں کبھی اتفاق رائے نہیں ہو سکا ہے۔ یہاں تک کہ عبرانی بائیبل کے فراہم کردہ مذہب کو بھی وہ متنوع سمجھتے ہیں۔
[1] جو فریق یہ سمجھتا ہے کہ یہودیت میں کچھ بنیادی عقائد موجود ہیں وہ یہ دلیل دیتا ہے کہ اگر یہ مان لیا جائے کہ یہودیت میں عقائد کا وجود ہی نہیں...
Kashmir became a part of the Muslim World in the 14th century C E. Under the local Sultans (1325-1585) , the Mughals (1586-1752) and the Pathans (1752-1819) , it developed into a state and society with its own peculiar Islamic culture. Kashmir was colonised by the Sikhs (1819-46) from the Punjab and the Hindu Dogra Maharajas (1846-1947) . The Muslim Kashmir stood for Islam through the freedom movement during this period. When the movement under the banner of Islam was at its apex and it seemed that the mahkutn (colonised / enslaved) Kashmir was about to achieve the goal, India ( Bharat) , a newly born nation (Aug 15, 1947) , invaded it on Oct. 27, almost 3 months after her own birth. Since then this newly emerging occupying -power through its policies of political deceit, cultural aggression, economic onslaught and delslamizing educational schemes has given rise to the problem of the IOK (Indian Occupied Kashmir) . The paper narrates the story of the past up to 1988-uprising & throws light on the oppression, persecution and discrimination that the Muslim Kashmir has been witnessing. The form offreedom-movement that followed from 1947 to 1989 is also outlined. In 1989 Jihad Kashmir, a new phase of the movement that invited the attention of the world begins. The paper helps to understand the background ofthe genesis ofthis new phase
Fabrication and Characterization of II-VI Semiconductor Thin Films and the Study of Post Doping Effects II-VI semiconductors have great importance in solar cell applications due to their excellent optical and electrical properties. This thesis is mainly concerned with the study of II-VI semiconductor thin films with a particular interest in their potential application in solar cells. A coating system based on close spaced sublimation (CSS) has been developed and thin films of zinc telluride (ZnTe), Zn and Te enriched ZnTe, cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium zinc sulfide (CdZnS) were fabricated. CdS is transparent to electromagnetic radiations; in particular to the visible and infra-red regions and are highly resistive materials. This research work pertained to improve CdS thin films as window materials using close spaced sublimation technique. The optimization of deposition parameters including vacuum in the chamber, distance between source-substrate, source and substrate temperatures are all investigated. ZnTe has been used as a buffer layer between CdTe and the metal back contact in II-VI semiconductor solar cells due to its compatibility with p-type cadmium telluride (CdTe). The purpose of the buffer layer is to help CdTe form a good Ohmic contact with the metal back contact, however, ZnTe itself is highly resistive. The main goal is to reduce electrical resistivity of ZnTe for its use as buffer layer in the back contact. The resistivity of the ZnTe thin film is modified by doping with silver (Ag) and/or copper (Cu). The compositions of zinc (Zn) and tellurium (Te) in the enriched (Zn or Te) ZnTe thin film is also explored to lower the resistivity of ZnTe film, which has not been reported earlier using CSS technique. In all these processes, the structural, surface, electrical and optical properties are studied for strong correlation. Ion exchange process is adopted for Ag and Cu doping in as-deposited ZnTe thin films with subsequent annealing. CdS is a potential candidate for window layer due to its suitable and tunable energy band gap (2.42 eV). Effects of doping are investigated on the structural, electrical and optical properties of CdS thin films fabricated by the CSS technique. These properties of fabricated CdS thin films are found to be suitable for solar cell applications. To enhance band gap, CdS and Zn powder are mixed mechanically with different weight percentages to deposit thin films CZS fabricated by CSS technique that has not been documented earlier. The increased energy band gap for CZS is 2.57 eV, which has improved the window region.