1۔ ججزکا کردار
اسلام کے ابتدائی دور میں قاضی کے تقرر کے لیے شرائط مندرجہ ذیل تھیں: مکلف ہو، جسمانی طور پر صحت مند ہو اور تعلیمی قابلیت مجتہد والی صفات موجود ہوں ۔ اس کے علاوہ لوگوں کی نفسیات سے واقف ہو۔خلیفہ خو د قضاۃ کا تقرر کرتا تھا۔ بنوعباس کے دور میں البتہ قاضی القضاۃ کا عہدہ پہلی بار متعارف ہوا۔ اس عہدہ جلیلہ پر فائز ہونے والی شخصیت قاضی ابویوسف ؒ کی ہے ۔ان کو بھی اختیار حاصل تھا کہ وہ تین براعظموں پر مشتمل اس ریاست کے قاضی کا تقرر کر سکیں۔صد ر ِاسلام میں نظام قضاء کے لیے قاضی کو جن امورکا خیال رکھنا پڑتا تھا اورفیصلہ دینے کا طریقہ کار کیا تھا۔ اس حوالے سے حضرت عمر کا ایک خط جو آپ نے حضرت ابو موسیٰ اشعری کو لکھا تھا ان میں سے اکثر تفصیلات کو سموئے ہوئے ہے ۔ السنن الکبرٰی للبیہقی اورالدارقطنی ؒنے یہ خط ان الفاظ کے ساتھ نقل کیا ہے
"كتب عمر إلى أبي موسى أما بعد فإن القضاء فريضة محكمة وسنة متبعة فافهم إذا أدلى إليك فإنه لا ينفع تكلم بحق لا نفاذ له آس الناسي في مجلسك وفي وجهك وقضائك حتى لا يطمع شريف في حيفك ولا ييأس ضعيف من عدلك البينة على المدعي واليمين على من أنكر والصلح جائز بين المسلمين إلا صلحا أحل حراما أو حرم حلالا ومن ادعى حقا غائبا أو بينة فاضرب له أمدا ينتهي إليه فإن بينه أعطيته بحقه وإن أعجزه ذلك استحللت عليه القضية فإن ذلك هو أبلغ في العذر وأجلى للعلماء ولا يمنعنك قضاء قضيت فيه اليوم فراجعت فيه رأيك فهديت فيه لرشدك أن تراجع فيه الحق فإن الحق قديم لا يبطله شيء ومراجعة الحق خير من التمادي في الباطل والمسلمون عدول بعضهم على بعض إلا مجربا عليه شهادة زور أو مجلودا في حد أو...
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) refers to the damage of mechanical components which are under the combined action of static load and corrosive environment. This phenomenon occurs in various applications including naval and aerospace industry where aluminum and steel alloys experience mechanical loadings in the presence of corrosive environments. In this research work, microstructural and environmental influence on corrosion behavior of Al-6061-T6 at different static loads was investigated. A new test fixture was developed for stress corrosion cracking. Dog-bone shaped tensile specimens of Al-6061-T6 were manufactured using CNC milling machine. Tests were conducted at constant loads of 200 N, 500 N and 800 N, in three different environments: dry ambient conditions, distilled water and 3.5% NaCl solution. Testing continued for different intervals of time i.e. 96 hours, 68 hours and 4.5 hours respectively. After each set of experiments, specimens were observed for cracks using metallurgical microscope. Detailed fractographic investigation of all the tested specimens was carried out using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Excessive corrosion and material degradation was observed in specimens tested in distilled water and 3.5% NaCl environments.
Microstructural analysis depicted pitting corrosion and crack deformation. Some regions clearly showed that grain boundaries were attacked due to oxidation and chemical attack causing weakening of grain boundaries and resulted into intergranular corrosion. Precipitates and grain boundaries in Al-6061-T6 served as a reason of crack initiation due to hydrogen diffusion. Fractographic investigation provided the evidence of trans granular fracture as well as intergranular fracture which was observed as dimples and extensive ductile tearing.
The plethora of research highlights the adjustment problems in college/university students (Friedlander, Reid, Shupak, & Cribbie, 2007; Gerensea, Seid, Lamma, & Malloy, 2017; Leary & DeRosier, 2012; Wintre &Yaffe, 2000). However, the research in Pakistani context is still limited. This research attempts to explore the phenomenology of adjustment problems and is comprised of three studies. In study I, adjustment problems scale (APS) was developed through semi structured interviews and focus groups. Exploratory factor analysis (N=450) revealed nine factors (educational problems, interactional problems, shame and guilt, work related stress, psychological problems, teacher related stress, transport problems, sexual harassment issues and financial problems) with significant internal consistency (ɑ=.96, .96, .96, .95, .97, .93, .95, .88, .90 respectively). Confirmatory factor analysis (N=880) was explored on students sample (M= 19.95, SD= 2.54) which revealed the consistent factor structure as emerged on EFA. In study II, psychometric properties of APS were explored. Convergent Validity (N= 300) was explored through subscale (Negative Affect) of College Adjustment Test (Hasan, Kazmi, & Jawahir, 2017) (r=.28, p<.01). Discriminant validity (N=300) was found out by using Psychological Resilience Scale (Jawahir & Kazmi, 2013) (r=-.21) whereas test retest reliability (N=100) of APS with two weeks interval was (r=.91, p<.01). Method of contrasted groups was used to establish the construct validity of APS. In study III, role of adjustment problems was explored in relation to depression, academic achievement and resilience. APS along with demographic sheet, Psychological Resilience scale and Siddiqui Shah Depression Scale was administered on the sample (N=880). Academic achievement was assessed through the percentage of marks obtained by iv students in their 1st semester exams after admission. Results reveal that adjustment problems are significant positive predictor of depression while negative predictor of academic achievement. Resilience is significant negative predictor of adjustment problems. Furthermore, resilience mediates between adjustment problems and depression, adjustment problems and academic achievement. Stepwise regression analysis on the subscales of APS reveals that shame & guilt and psychological problems are significant positive predictors of depression. Financial problems, shame & guilt, work related stress, educational problems and teacher related stress are significant negative predictors of academic achievement. Results further reveal that male students have more adjustment problems as compared to female students. This study will be helpful for campus counselors for the early assessment and management of adjustment problems.