China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: A Case Study Of Internal Security Challenge Faced by Pakistan

The strongest and most crucial strategic and economic links in the south Asian region are the friendships between Pakistan and China. China and Pakistan assert that the people who live on either side of the Himalayas have interacted with one another in a trustworthy and sincere manner from ancient times. Chinese investment in the CPEC represents the greatest sum (62 billion dollars) ever between two friendly nations. China and Pakistan are dealing with numerous internal and external security challenges as a result of their strong friendship and significant investment in this project. Both nations, such as India and Afghanistan, are posing security problems to Pakistan, which has several security issues. The USA, India, the UK, and Israel are also causing strife and tension in Pakistan. These nations are also causing internal problems by sponsoring terrorist organizations like the Taliban and ISIS as well as nationalist organizations like the Baloch, the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, and Sipah Muhammad. The challenges to Pakistan's internal security are discussed in this study.

Surveillance of Yellow Rust in Pakistan and Characterization of Disease Resistance in Local and Exotic Wheat Germplasm

Yellow rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici, is among the most serious diseases of wheat in many parts of gloge including Pakistan. Yellow rust occurrence, distribution and impact were assessed during 2012 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. A total of 1582 wheat fields covering 4672 acres were surveyed in southern (1786 acres), central (2481 acres) and northern zones (404 acres) of KPK province. Four hundred and sixty three acres were found infected in southern (177 acres), central (153 acres) and northern (133 acres) zones. The highest yellow rust impact in southern zone was recorded in Bannu (Field Impact Factor (FIF): 121) whereas the least was recorded in Karak (FIF:6). Similarly, yellow rust impact in the central zone was the highest in Nowshera (FIF: 201) and lowest in Mardan (FIF: 42). In the northern zone it was highest in Abbotabad (FIF: 499) and lowest in Mansehra (FIF: 328). Nine to fifteen cultivars were deployed in the southern zone, five to thirteen in the central while four to eight in the northern zone of KPK. Sehar-06 was the dominant wheat cultivar covering 41.79% wheat area surveyed, which is prone to yellow rust and therefore undesirable wheat cultivar. Yellow rust pathogen virulences were recorded in the three distinct wheat wheat production in KPK near to the Himalayan region using Australian Near Isogenic Lines (NILs) AvSYr1NIL, AvSYr5NIL, AvSYr6NIL, AvSYr7NIL, AvSYr8NIL, AvSYr9NIL, AvSYr10NIL, AvSYr15NIL, AvSYr17NIL, AvSYr18NIL, AvSYr24NIL, AvSYr26NIL, AvSYr27NIL, AvSYr32NIL, AvSYrSPNIL, Jupateco R, Jupateco S, Avocet R and Avocet S over four years from 2010 - 2013. Virulence was not recorded in case of Yr1 and Yr17 in the southern zone production zone while no virulence was detected on Yr10 and Yr15 in both central and northern (Abbotabad) wheat zones. Yr15 showed susceptibility in the year 2011 and 2013 in northern wheat zone (Swat). Resistance level of other genes fluctuated between years and location. Virulences recorded against genes i.e. Yr5, Yr24, Yr26 and YrSp at various sites and years but rust severity of the mentioned genes recorded below 20 percent in the years 2010 - 2013 with exception to Yr5 whose reseaction was high at one location in the central wheat zone of the province. Similarity index (SI) among locations in the three wheat zones showed high level of similarity between Peshawar 1 in the central zone and Abbotabad in northern zone (SI=0.13). All locations showed small level of similarity among each other’s with exception to Peshawar 1 with Bannu (SI=27.72) and Bannu with Abbotabad (SI=27.6) which indicated greater level of difference to each other. Three hundred and thirty one genotypes of CIMMYT 45th International Bread Wheat Screening Nursery (IBWSN) were characterized at the phenotypic and molecular level for identifying novel sources of adult plant resistance. Field tests at adult plant stage were performed at one location each in Mexico and Pakistan over two (2012-2013) and three (2013-2015) seasons, respectively. Seedling test and molecular tagging of four resistance genes Yr9, Yr17, Yr24-26, and Yr30 in 331 were carried out at CIMMYT, Mexico. Based on greenhouse test, 331 genotypes were divided into six groups. Genotypes in Group 1 had seedling susceptibility and were consistent to have 4-5 times Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) ranking between 1-30 over five years field testing in Mexico and Pakistan. Group 2 genotypes also had seedling susceptibility but were inconsistent and unstable in their AUDPC ranking over five years testing in both countries. Group 3 genotypes were seedling stage resistant and were consistent to have 4-5 times ranking of their AUDPC between 1-30 over five years. Group 4 genotypes were resistant at the seedling stage but were inconsistent and unstable in their AUDPC ranking over five years field testing. Group 5 genotypes displayed intermediate seedling reaction and were consistent to have 4-5 times of their AUDPC ranking between 1-30 over five years field tests. Group 6 genotypes displayed intermediate seedling reaction but were inconsistent and unstable in their AUDPC ranking over five years’ field tests. Four markers including SCM009, Ventriup +Ln2, CYS-5 and WMS533 were used to tag Yr9, Yr17, Yr24-26, and Yr30 which were amplified in 8, 45, 80 and 75% of the total 331 genotypes, respectively. Effectiveness and levels of adult plant resistance of 29 seedling susceptible wheat cultivars from a previous study were field tested at six yellow rust prone locations in KPK over four years during 2010-2013. Cultivars, locations and years x locations differences were observed highly significant (P < 0.05) for Average Coefficient of Infection (ACI) while years, locations x cultivars, years x cultivars, years x locations and years x locations x cultivars remained non-significant. ACI of susceptible check, Avocet S was 80-90%, indicated that high epidemic pressure was established at all six experimental locations over four years of field study. Mean ACI during 2011 was the highest (29) which was followed by 2012 (25), 2013 (24) and 2010 (15). However, yearly ACI means were non-significant. Regarding locations, mean ACI value was the highest at Swat (40) followed by Abbotabad (33), Peshawar1 (28), Peshawar 2 (26), Nowshara (14) and Bannu (10). Among test locations, Swat, Nowshara and Bannu were significantly different for mean ACI values. Based on over locations/years ACI values, 29 cultivars were characterized into two resistance groups. Cultivars with ACI values of 0-20 and 21-40 were regarded as possessing high and moderate levels of adult plant resistance, respectively. ACI values of 15 cultivars including Kohsar-93, Nowshera-96, Zardana-89, Kaghan-93, Bakhtwar-93, Parwaz-94, Pak-81, V00183, CT00231, 93T347, 91BT010-84, 99B2278, 7_03 and Wafaq- 2001 fluctuated at certain test locations over four years study, however their overall ACI falls between 0-20 and were considered effective and carry high level of adult plant resistance. This study generated valuable new information regarding yellow rust distribution, impact, variety deployment and comparison of test locations and has also identified effective and ineffective genes in KPK. Furthermore, novel sources of adult plant yellow rust resistance were characterized both at the phenotypic and molecular levels while in a set of 29 genotypes, effective and high level of adult plant resistance was determined. Novel information and material characterized in this study will significantly contribute in wheat germplasm improvement and variety development programs in Pakistan.