موضوع 11:اردو اور ہندی کا لسانی رشتہ
ہندی کیا ہے؟
اکثر ماہرین زبان اس بات سے اتفاق کرتے ہیں کہ کھڑی بولی ہندوستانی کا دیوناگری روپ ہے۔ جس کی ابتداء فورٹ ولیم کالج سے ہوئی۔ موجودہ ہندی کے بارے میں یہ رائے صرف قیاس پر مبنی ہے۔اس سے پہلے کوئی تاریخی اور لسانی استدلال ایسانہیں ملتا جو ہندی کو کھڑی بولی کی روایت سے جوڑے۔دیو نام یا نام دیو اور کبیرداس کی شاعری لسانی اعتبار سے اپنے عہد کی کھڑی بولی میں سے ہے۔محض رسم الخط کی بنیاد پر اسے ہندی کی ادبی روایت نہیں کہا جا سکتا۔بالکل پدماوت، چتروالی (کتابوں کے نام) کی طرح جو اردو رسم الخط میں لکھی گئی ہیں لیکن اردو نہیں ہیں۔
بعض ماہرین ہندی کا خیال ہے کہ ہندی کی ابتدا دسویں صدی عیسوی یااس سے پہلے ہوئی۔اس نظریے کی حمایت میں جو تاریخی اور لسانی استدلال پیش کیے گئے ان کی صحت پر شبہ ہے۔ دراصل یہ غلط فہمی لفظ"ہندی" سے ہوئی جسے مغربی اور مشرقی ماہرین لسانیات نے ہند آریائی زبانوں کے مطالعے میں کثرت سے استعمال کیا ہے۔گریسن اپنی گروہ بندی میں وسطی اور اندرونی حلقے کی زبانوں کو مشرقی ہندی اور مغربی ہندی کہتا ہے۔ ماہر لسانیات ڈاکٹر سینتی کمار چیٹرجی بھی مشرقی ہندی اور مغربی ہندی کی اصطلاحیں استعمال کرتے ہیں۔اسی لفظ کو ہندی والے لے اڑے۔ انہوں نے تصور کرلیا کہ بہت پہلے قدیم ہندی ایک زبان تھی جس کی مختلف بولیوں کو بعض لسانی خصوصیات کی بنیاد پر مشرقی ہندی اور مغربی ہندی میں بانٹ دیا گیا۔اسی لیے اہل ہندی کی اکثریت آج بھی برج، فوجی، بندیلی اور اردو یہاں تک کہ بوجھ پوری، اودھی، راجستھانی اور پنجابی وغیرہ کو ہندی کی بولیاں قرار دیتی ہے۔ لیکن اس قیاس کی کوئی لسانی توضیح نہیں ہے۔ زبانوں کی اس فہرست میں اکثر وہ زبانیں ہیں...
E-Commerce in today’s world is playing an important role in global business. A quantitative and quantitative research was conducted with professional members, employees working in organization which are dealing with E-Business or online working via internet and their views gave an empirical and dynamic approach to make business efficient and effective. Connectivity with market to find best manufacture for goods and for manufacture to finds its buyer for their finished goods. Flow of information become faster and gathering of data become easier to make activities of business to get optimal results. Numbers of goods are available complications to finds goods are removed by complimentary goods. Supplies of goods at proper time in order to meet demand by consumer plays win to win game. Improved methods of technology like RFID make work easier and accessible information about goods to management. Manpower in forms of labor is reducing which leads to decrease in the cost of goods. Ordering cost saves time and gives a specified time both producers to make commodity and consumer for delivery of goods. E-Commerce with contrast of components of supply chain in the form of ware house, logistics, number of listing suppliers, number of listing items on one web in the form of website on one platform give dynamic image to businesses in the race of competitive world. Business transactions done with internet not only reduce time but also make documents or records for longer time able to send data from distant parts of the world. Through websites we can get completive price information and other relevant information for goods.
THE GENETIC ANALYSIS OF RETINAL DYSTROPHIES IN SELECTED PAKISTANI FAMILIES Retinal Dystrophies (RD) are the major cause of inherited blindness in Pakistan. The worldwide prevalence of RD is 1 in 3,000-5,000 individuals. There are 42 known loci and 154 genes that have been reported to be associated with RD. In Pakistan the percentage of recessive diseases are higher than dominant or X-linked disorders, which might be due to the high level of cousin marriages. Therefore the purpose of the present study was to determine the frequency of the mode of inheritance of RD in the Pakistani population and to evaluate the genetic basis of RD in a cohort of consanguineous families collected from different areas of Pakistan. To determine the inheritance pattern of RD in the Pakistani population, data about medical and family history of 80 families suffering from RD were collected from different areas of Pakistan. Homozygosity mapping was used to map the genetic defect in 23 RD families. The families were analyzed for homozygosity at the known arRP loci using highly informative microsatellite markers and were analyzed for homozygous chromosomal regions by genome-wide SNP microarrays. Known RD genes residing in homozygous regions were screened for mutations by sequence analysis. Identified mutations were analyzed in a cohort of 28 or 44 Pakistani RP probands and 100 ethnically matched control individuals by allele-specific PCR or restriction fragment length analysis. In the Pakistani families with RD that were studied, the occurrence of autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant and X-linked inheritance forms was found to be 87%, 6%, and 2% respectively while 3% families were with uncertain genetic mode of inheritance. We thus conclude that autosomal recessive forms of the disease are more frequent among RD patients in the Pakistani population compared to other populations of the world. Homozygosity mapping and candidate gene analysis resulted in the identification of seven novel mutations, including four in known arRP genes; one in CRB1, one in PDE6B, two in CNGB1 while one known mutation was identified in RHO. In addition one novel mutation was identified in GRKI causing Oguchi disease, two novel mutations, one in CNGA3 and CNGB3 were identified in patients suffering from achromatopsia. In addition to these novel mutations, a new arRP locus at chromosome 11 was identified in a large consanguineous family. The 7 iifamilies that excluded known arRP loci showed homozygosity at different chromosomal locations that needs to be further confirmed through microsatellite markers. The current genetic studies of RD was helpful in obtaining the correct diagnoses of RD families who had previously been clinically misdiagnosed and facilitated the provision of a clinical therapy for patients of achromatopsia. In addition genetic counseling was carried out in those areas of Pakistan where there is little awareness of inherited diseases.