The British Colonial Encounter with the Pukhtuns: An Appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s Struggle against the British Raj (1936-1947)

The North-West Frontier region of the British Empire in India during the Great Game was part of the ‘Ring Fence Strategy’, framed by the Raj against its adversaries and rivals in Central and South Asia. To protect her ‘Jewel in the Crown’- India, the British Raj made several moves in the strategically placed Pukhtun1 land. The Pukhtun populace, adherent to their centuries old code of conduct, Puḳhtūnwali, consistently resisted the British encroachment of their territory. Mirza Ali Khan, popularly known as Faqir Ippi, was one of the many freedom fighters who challenged the imperialist power in this region. Taking notice of Islam Bibi’s case, a Hindu Convert, Faqir Ippi mobilized the Pukhtuns of Waziristan in defying and fighting the British. He was a serious contestant to the British authority with his well-known fighting skills, effective planning and guerilla tactics in one of the most difficult terrains. The entire Tribal Belt, especially Waziristan, proved to be a ‘turbulent frontier’ for nearly eleven years, i.e. 1936-1947. This insurgency started bringing bad name to the crown and encouraging others to rise against the British. To contain and end Faqir Ippi’s resistance, Governor George Cunningham hired the locals to instigate and bribe his followers to rise and fight against him. The aim of this paper is a critical evaluation of the British strategy in this region and an appraisal of Faqir Ippi’s response and assessment of how successful he was in invigorating Pukhtun resistance to defend their motherland, using both colonial and local sources.

An Analytical & Comparative Study of Jewelry & Costumes in the Panels of Gandhara Art

The objective of the present research was to investigate the significance of the depiction of an unlimited variety of costumes and jewelry in the sculptural art of Gandhara with a comparative and analytical approach. Another aim was to examine the continuity of fashions and trends prevalent during the period under review up to the modern period. On the basis of the study of costumes and jewelry depicted in Gandhara sculptures, an effort was made for the socio-economic reconstruction of the ancient Gandhara region. To achieve the above mentioned objectives, specimens of Gandhara art present in the Archaeological Museums of Taxila, Swat and Peshawar, Archaeological Museum, Peshawar University, National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi, British Museum, London, Victoria & Albert Museum, London and various internet archives were thoroughly studied. Though the present research is based on the sculptures pertaining to Gandhara art, important sculptures belonging to other schools of arts have also been included in the study with intent of comparison. The results of the study of coiffures depicted in Gandhara sculptures revealed that the natives of Gandhara had a strong desire to keep themselves neat and well groomed for which they used to style their hair variously. Buddha was depicted with variously styled hair gathered in usnisa at the top of head. Bodhisattvas usually appear with hairstyles imitated from the Greek and Roman gods. Long curly hair sometimes gathered at the top in a bun were the most preferred style of the males. Females were often shown in a bun at the nape or in a large braid hanging up to hips. The study of coiffures had been a source of observing the status of individual too. Those belonging to royal status and deities were shown with neatly combed coiffures while poor individuals with matted hair. The majority of hairstyles depicted in the Gandhara sculptures were either South Asian in continuance or created in Gandhara, which afterwards accessed up to eastern India. Merely few were imported from the West. The present study has also brought to light a variety of male and female headdresses shown in the Gandhara sculptures. The most common male headdress being turban was elaborately decorated. Strange motifs were used to embellish them which are not found elsewhere. Turban is exclusively a South Asian headdress which was being used previously in the earlier South Asian arts. Turbans are still being used by the males in various regions of South Asia. It is also used by the males of Muslim and Sikh community. Wreaths, crowns, caps and helmets are influenced from the Scythian, Greek and Roman prototypes. Females were mostly depicted wearing wreaths which were more decorated if worn by Maya or Hariti. Veils were also in use which resembles the Greek himation and Roman palla. Veil in various forms like dupatta, shawl or stole is still worn, in various modes, by the females of South Asia. Buddha was depicted without any headdress. The research has also discovered that costumes represented in Gandhara sculptures were mostly of South Asian origin since their prototypes can be noticed in the earlier arts of the region, their modes of drapery may vary from region to region. However, Western influences are also discernible. Besides unstitched clothes, cut and sewn clothes were equally favored. Interesting blends of local and foreign costumes, such as tunic with dhoti etc., indicate the intermingling of South Asian and Western ideas, which were well at work due to continuous foreign influx in the region. Comparisons with other arts disclosed that females, besides very few nude or seminude representations, were usually depicted in complete costume seldom exposing their body. It was, perhaps, in accordance with the Buddhist teaching which strictly disallowed the body exposure. Their sophisticated depiction also signifies the respect of females in the society. Much of the variety of costumes, with few modifications, continues up to present. The present research also discovered striking and unique designs of various jewelry items, such as diadems, earrings and necklaces bearing animal motifs, depicted in Gandhara sculptures which were not noticed elsewhere. Ornaments being used earlier in South Asia were also in vogue, while few were a result of foreign importation. Many of them show similarity with the real jewelry discovered from Taxila and Tillya Tepe, Afghanistan which attest the use of similar ornaments by the natives of ancient Gandhara region. Numerous jewelry ornaments depicted in the sculptures are still used and serve as a model for the present jewelry. The abundant jewelry worn by rich and poor alike signifies that the region enjoyed prosperity during the period under study. The current study of costumes and jewelry depicted in Gandhara sculptures indicates the presence of a dedicated class of tailors, goldsmiths and jewelry makers were present in the region, whose work were duplicated in the sculptures by the artists. The study also acknowledges the expertise of Gandhara artists who had such a control over their skills that anything they came across they duplicated it in stone. The present study though focused on the study of jewelry and costumes also disclosed that despite of the political instability the economic conditions of Gandhara, during the period under review, remained stable. It was the wealth of the region which attracted people from distant places to visit the region which is endorsed by the scenes showing individuals wearing foreign headdresses and costumes in the presence of Buddha. The social conditions of the region were also unveiled through this study. A joyful and pleasant life style of the inhabitants of Gandhara is indicated. It was observed that the lives of the inhabitants of Gandhara had endless range of opportunities. The individuals from various social statuses were presented wearing jewelry and costumes according to their professions.