اسلام میں اہلیت اجتہاد کا معیار

Ijtihad is not an ordinary matter, but an important and sensible religious responsibility from Sharia’h perspective. That is why, Islam does notpermits everyone to indulge in, rather imposes some pre-requisites of widespread knowledge, penetrating insight, intellectual wisdom and similar ext ra ordinary capabilities, without which Ijtihad is deemed as unacceptable and unauthentic. Similarly, any such so-called Ijtihad is also worthless which is not based on knowledge and argument. Several threats have been mentioned in Ahadith on such types of Ijtihad. However, acceptable and reward earning Ijtihad is one which is based on knowledge and arguments, fulfilling all pre-requisite conditions for the task. The essential conditions for indulging in Ijtihad are: expertise in Arabic language, deep understanding of Quran and Sunnah, knowledge of principles of Islamic jurisprudence especially analogy (Qayas), God-gifted intellect and wisdom, know- how about demands of contemporary age, knowledge about demanding situation for making Ijtihad, its procedure and about Shariah perspectives in this regard, and piousness. These conditions are agreed upon with consensus. Besides, there are some conditions which arouse difference of opinion, e.g. Knowledge of Usul-e-Deen, Logics, and particular problems of Islamic jurisprudence, etc. Some scholars consider them amongst essential conditions for Ijtihad, while rest majority do not deem them as necessary. Allama Shatibi, in his individual opinion contradicting to that of majority, has allowed for non-Muslims also to do Ijtihad. However, majority of scholars opine that Islam is the first pre-requisite condition for the task, hence non-Muslim is not capable for that.

Design Development and Manufacturing of Fuel Cells

Characterization of materials used for the fabrication of fuel cell components was made and reported. Electrodes have been designed for the single unit fuel cells and for fuel cell stacks. Designing, of single unit fuel cell was completed by designing the process and hardware of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) for a catalyst area of 16 cm 2 , 25 cm 2 , 50 cm 2 , 100 cm 2 and single cells were fabricated and tested accordingly . The presented work is the development of fuel cell stacks with the main focus on the conception, design and production of bipolar plates for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). As a conclusion of this development, a 3 cell stack has been fabricated and tested. The research work on the designing and analysis of 6 geometries of the flow fields in PEMFC bipolar plates have been conducted and the results of this study have been compiled, evaluated and presented. Bipolar plate material was developed by the impregnation of porous graphite with styrene, epoxy resin and cyanoacrylate. The porosity measurement results revealed that porosity of porous graphite plate has been completely removed. Moreover, a composite material was also synthesized by using a vinyl ester thermosetting resin, graphite powder, and poly (1, 4-phenylene sulfide). Both of the materials were characterized to determine and compare their physical properties such as density, mechanical properties, thermal stability and electrical properties. These materials were characterized to determine and compare with the competitive composite materials developed by the commercial developers. Thermal studies by TG-DTA-DTG of composite bi-polar plate were carried out in air atmosphere to find out the mode of degradation and the basis of its stability. The intermediates formed during decomposition process were also identified. A system was developed and operated for the study and determination of the life cycle assessment and feasibility of the different commercially available absorbent and adsorbent materials and a molecular sieve, required for the removal of sulfur compounds and mercaptans etc. from the natural gas feed stock, as these compounds impose severe poisoning effect on the activity and life of the catalysts and other fuel cell system components. The thesis is composed of two volumes, Volume-1 (Page# 1 to Page# 166) and Volume-2 (Page# 167 to Page 351).