قول ِمحال:(Paradox)
"ایسا تضادی بیان جو مسلمہ تصور کے برعکس ہو، پیراڈاکس کہلاتا ہے۔"
لیکن قولِ محال محض تضاد نہیں بلکہ قولِ محال جہاں شروع ہوا ہے، وہاں تضاد ختم ہونے لگتا ہے۔ تضاد تو ایک عمومی حقیقت ہے جس کے فنی بیان میں دلکشی تو ہے، صنعت کاری کا جمالِ فریب نہیں۔ اسے اتحادِ ضدین بھی کہہ سکتے ہیں۔
"پیراڈاکس’’ انیسویں صدی کی جدید صنعتِ بیان ہے جو ایک نوع کی ذہنی ورزش ہے۔نثر و نظم میں قولِ محال پیدا کرنا اور اس سے حِظ یاب ہونا، ترقی یافتہ ذہن کا کام ہے۔یہ انگریزی ادب سے ہمارے ہاں آیا۔انگریزی ادب میں آسکر وائلڈ، چسٹرٹن اور برنارڈ شا اس کے نقیب ہیں۔اردو شاعری میں قولِ محال کی مثالیں دیکھیے:
ہم نے جس شخص کو توقیرِ شناسائی دی
اس نے خوش ہوکے ہمیں عزتِ رسوائی دی
(دوسرے مصرعہ میں قولِ محال "عزتِ رسوائی"ہے)
جہلِ خرد نے دن یہ دکھائے!
گھٹ گئے انساں، بڑھ گئے سائے
(پہلے مصرعہ میں قولِ محال "جہلِ خرد’’ ہے)
(پروفیسر انور جمال کی تصنیف "ادبی اصطلاحات’’ مطبوعہ نیشنل بْک فاؤنڈیشن، اشاعتِ چہارم، مارچ 2017ئ ، صفحہ نمبر 144 سے انتخاب)
ابہام:(Ambiguity)
ابہام ایک انگریزی اصطلاح ہے جسے اردو ادب میں بھی استعمال کیا جاتا ہے۔ابہام کی صورت حال اس وقت رونما ہوتی ہے جب کسی لفظ، محاورے، جملے، اشارے وغیرہ کی ایسی ترسیل کی جائے کہ اس سے ایک کی بجائے کئی معانی اور مطالب ممکن ہوں۔ ابہام کا ایک عام پہلو عدم تعین ہے۔ یہ ہر خیال یا بیان کا خاصہ ہے جس کے ارادی معانی قطعی طور کسی اصول یا طریق? کار کی روشنی میں سلجھائے نہیں جا سکتے جس میں مقررہ اقدامات شامل ہوں۔
ابہام کی مثالیں:
کئی الفاظ جن کا عام طور سے استعمال کیا جاتا ہے، مختلف لوگوں کے لیے مختلف معانی کے حامل ہوتے ہیں۔ مثلًا لمبا یا...
Diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is one of the leading causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally. Protein loss in the urine due to damage to the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling (edema) and result in the nephrotic syndrome. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of renal disease in diabetic patients and its complications in Pakistan. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted at Renal and Diabetic Departments of the Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Lahore, over a period of 3 months, after obtaining the ethical approval from the The University of Lahore. A total number of 100 Diabetic patients were selected through non probability convenient sampling technique. Patients of both sexes and all age groups were included. Results: In this study 60% were male and 40% were female. About 41% diabetic patients were 1-6 month of age, 42% were 1-5 years old and 1% of 18-23 years old who had renal diseases while 9% patients were without any renal disease. Whereas the prevalence of diabetes is more in infants than others which is 35%. But there was not significant association between onset of renal diseases with the onset of diabetes mellitus with p-value 0.24. Conclusions: Results of current study showed that diabetes mellitus effecting individuals of all ages equally but there was not significant association between diabetes and renal diseases.
Glucose oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4) is an important enzyme that oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid. It is present in all aerobic organisms and has become a very useful enzyme for its wide applications especially in food industry and in clinical analysis. The most important application for GOX is the determination of glucose using biosensor technology. GOX belongs to a large group of enzymes oxido reductase and is also called as glucose aerodehydrogenase Glucose oxidase was produced from different microorganisms. Both fungi and bacteria produce glucose oxidase during fermentation. The present project was planned for the optimum production of glucose oxidase by Aspergillus niger and its utilization for estimation of glucose and for the production of calcium, gluconate, gluconic acid and its derivatives. The project was divided into two parts, in the first part production of glucose oxidase from Aspergillus niger was investigated and the second part consists of commercial applications of glucose oxidase. Here the aim was to improve GOX production using mutagenesis of A. niger, to optimize the conditions of fermentation, screen fungal strains producing highest GOX activity, and to medium composition. Mutagenesis was carried out on several strains at different time intervals. GOX enzyme purified by (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 precipitation technique was dialysed and subjected to gel filtration chromatography. The enzyme was found to be intracellular. Five strains of A. niger isolated from grapes, bread, potato, pickle and sugar beet sources were screened for maximum GOX production. It is clear from our results that the A. niger strain isolated from potato was best for GOX production. This strain showed the maximum enzyme activity in medium containing 10% (w/v) glucose and at pH 5.5. Different conditions like the fermentation period, varying concentrations of urea, MgSO 4 .7H 2 O, CaCO 3 and KH 2 PO 4 were optimized by conducting different experiments. The maximum activity of glucose oxidase was recorded after 48 hours of continuous shaking fermentation of optimum growth medium containing 3.5% (w/v) CaCO 3 , 0.2% (w/v) Urea, 0.4% (w/v) KH 2 PO 4 and 0.01% (w/v) MgSO 4 .7H 2 O. It was observed that addition of Urea, CaCO 3 , and KH 2 PO 4 in the medium enhanced the GOX production whereas addition of MgSO 4 .7H 2 O decreased the GOX production. The GOX was found PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.comto be quite active upto 60 o C with optimum temperature at 30 o C. The batch fermentation volume of 50 ml at 100 rpm speed shaker was found to be the optimum for GOX production. Among mutant, it was found that mutant (9) had maximum activity and growth. The UV induced mutation gave a stable and viable culture for hyper production of GOX as the production was enhanced. Then the enzyme was purified by (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 precipitation technique, Dialysis and Gel filtration chromatography. It was observed that enzyme activity was increased by increasing (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 concentration. Enzyme activity also increased by Dialysis and Gel filtration chromatography from 11.90 to 37.24 μ/ml. Purification was 11.55 folds than simple precipitation at this final step. In the second part of project two commercial applications of GOX were investigated i.e. estimation of glucose by standardization of conditions using GOX and the production of calcium gluconate, gluconic acid and its derivatives using GOX. In the first application the three enzymes GOX, mutarotase (EC # 5.1.3.3) and peroxidase (EC # 1.11.1.) were produced, extracted and purified for the preparation and optimization of glucose estimation kit. The enzyme concentrations of 5 μL mutarotase, 15 μL glucose oxidase and 10 μL of peroxidase with chromagen Guaiacol added before peroxidase, proved to be best for estimations of glucose in blood samples. The sensitivity of the best kit was as low as 50 mg/dL glucose. The wavelength of 470 nm was best for the test. The results were comparable with standard kit of Medisense Abbott (UK). In the second application, calcium gluconate and gluconic acid and its derivatives were produced by glucose oxidase from Aspergillus niger. The time course during fermentation showed that the calcium gluconate production was maximum at 48 hours after conidial inoculation. The cultural conditions optimized for maximum calcium gluconate production were, glucose concentration 10% (w/v), pH 5.5, 7% (w/v) CaCO 3 , 0.2% (w/v) urea 0.15% (w/v) KH 2 PO 4 concentration at 35 o C. Different nitrogen, phosphate and metal carbonate sources were also optimized. The present study also described the production of gluconic acid and its derivatives on the laboratory scale. Gluconic acid and its metal salts such as sodium, magnesium, copper and nickel gluconates were synthesized from calcium gluconate which was produced by fermentation. The gluconic acid was released by the action of oxalic acid and sulphuric acid on calcium gluconate. Sulphuric acid gave better yields i.e. (90%) as compared to oxalic acid (80%). So the organic acid was obtained by PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.comH 2 SO 4 in the present work because it was cheap and readily available in local market. Metal gluconates were also produced by both the double decomposition and gluconic acid methods respectively. It is clear from the study that the gluconic acid method gave greater yields compared to the double decomposition method. This project will help in the commercial production of products using GOX in Pakistan.