قرآن میں استفہامیہ اسلوب کے مقاصد
قرآن حکیم میں استفہام کا اسلوب کثرت سے استعمال کیا گیا ہے ۔ مخاطب میں آمادگی پیدا کرنے، غور وفکر کی دعوت دینے، مخاطب کو جواب سننے کےلیے آمادہ کرنے ، اور مخاطب سے کسی حقیقت کا اقرار کرانے کے لیے یہ اسلوب استعمال کیا گیا ہے ۔ استفہام ،اثبات کے ذریعے بھی کیا گیاہے اور منفی اندازِ استفہام بھی نظر آتاہے ۔علاوہ ازیں تاکید، ترغیب ،توبیخ،تحقیر، عبرت اندوزی، شان و شوکت کے اظہار اور التفات و نوازش کے لیے بھی اسے استعمال کیا گیاہے ۔ یہ اقرار و امر کےمعنی میں بھی آیاہے اوراظہار تعجب کے لیے بھی۔ حسرت کے انداز میں بھی اور بانداز استعجاب و استہزاء بھی۔ مسلسل استفہام بھی قرآن میں استعمال کیا گیا ہے ۔ مذکورہ بالا مقاصد وحکمتوں اور اس کے منفرد استعمال پر ذیل میں بحث کی گئی ہے ۔
This article deals with “Synonymy” in Arabic. Generally “Synonymy” is a radical source which keeps language more advanced and developed. The “Synonymy” has gained attention of early Arabic linguists’ and scholars while compiling the sacred language data, for instance two major linguists Abū al-Mālik ibn Qutaybah al-Asma’i and Ibn Khalawayh focused on synonymity of words, eventually they considered memorisation of synonym words as a mark of pride. On the other hand, some other linguists like Abu al-‘Abbās Aḥmed ibn Yaḥy al-Thalb and Abū ‘Alī al-Fārisī have denied the existence of synonymity in Arabic language altogethers. After all, the “Synonymity” of words is considered as a linguistic phenomenon in all languages generally and in Arabic language particularly. A renowned great scholar ‘Abdul Raḥmān al-Kilānī paid countless attention to this linguistic phenomenon and wrote the book the of one is which“مترادف القرآن مع الفروق اللغوية”: entitled comprehensive reference books in the field. He studied Quranic synonyms with their meanings systematically. The article addresses the concept of synonymity with a brief historiography as well as what ‘Abdul Raḥmān al-Kilānī's book brought us in this field.
Chickpea blight caused by Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Lab. (teleomorph: Didymella rabiei) (Kovachevski) v. Arx, is the most devastating disease of gram crop in the world. Disease can induce 100% yield losses under epidemic condition. In Pakistan, chickpea blight is causing heavy yield losses annually. Due to lack of resistance in indigenous chickpea germplasm, disease is controlled through fungicides by the growers of Pakistan. Excessive use of fungicides causes resistance in the pathogen and creates fatalistic effect on the environment. Chickpea blight disease predictive model under such situation may be effective tool to predict early onset of disease. In this way excessive use of fungicides may be avoided. Plant extracts and antagonists may also provide a replacement of chemical control of chickpea blight. The objective of this study was to develop a disease predictive model based upon environmental variables i.e. maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall and wind speed to predict chickpea blight and devise an eco-friendly management strategy for this disease. Correlation and regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship of environmental variables with disease severity. Significant correlation was found between all environmental variables and disease severity. Maximum temperature showed negative correlation, while minimum temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind speed exhibited positive correlation with disease severity. Environmental factors and disease severity data of five years (2006-10) was used to develop a disease predictive model using stepwise regression analysis. Maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall and wind speed significantly contributed in disease development and explained 72% variability in disease severity. This model, based on five years data, was then validated with two years (2011-12) environmental and disease severity data. In two years model all environmental parameters explained 82% variability in blight severity. Both models i.e. based upon five and two years data validated each other on the basis of homogeneity of regression lines. Blight severity was high at maximum (20-24°C) and minimum (12-14°C) temperatures, relative humidity (65-70%), rainfall (5-6 mm) and wind speed (5-6.5 km/h), respectively. Chickpea germplasm comprised of 48 genotypes was screened against chickpea blight during years 2011-12. Advanced lines exhibited resistant and moderately resistant response were viz; K-60013, K-98008, K-96001, K-96022, D-97092, D-91055, D-90272, D-96050, D-Pb2008 and D-Pu502-362, and K-96033, K-89169, K-90395, D-91017, D-89044, D-05006, D-96018, D-86030, D-96032, D-03009 and D-1CC-5127, respectively. For the management of disease, five fungicides, five plant extracts and two bio-control agents were evaluated under in vitro conditions. The concentrations of fungicides were 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.15%, respectively while concentrations of plant extracts were 3%, 5% and 8%, respectively. Spore suspension of bio-controls was kept as; 105, 106, and 107 conidia/mL, respectively. Means of treatments were compared using least significant difference (LSD) test. Two fungicides i.e. Alliete and ThiovetJet @ 0.15%, two plants extracts i.e. Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica @ 8% and bio-control agent (Trichoderma harzianum at 107 conidia/mL) proved significantly effective under in vitro conditions. These most effective treatments were then applied under in vivo to check their efficacy for two years. Significant disease severity was reduced by fungicides i.e. Alliete (17%) and Thiovetjet (23%) followed by plant extracts, in which M. azedarach and A. indica reduced disease severity to 50% and 56%, respectively compared to control (75%). T. harzianum proved third good against chickpea blight disease in field after fungicides and plant extracts.