Frequency and Psychosocial Determinants of Gender Discrimination Regarding Food Distribution among Families

Due to male dominance in society as well as in households, the rights of females are ignored. Hence, there exists gender discrimination while giving food to family members which in turn results in poor health status for females. Therefore, it is important to explore the causes of this unequal distribution of food among family members Objective: To determine psychosocial factors causing gender discrimination regarding food distribution among families Methods: Data collected from fifty females aged 15-80 years, selected from the urban community using non-probability consecutive sampling, were used for analysis. Females with malnutrition, psychological disorders, with laparotomy and major surgery were excluded. Gender discrimination was assessed as males or male children were preferred for better and more food items like fresh food, meat, fruits, milk, dairy products and multivariate logistic regression analysis was done to see the impact selected factors on gender discrimination Results: The large family size (> 6 members) showed significantly higher odds of discrimination (OR=3.89; 95% CI= 1.03-15.26) than smaller families. The odds of food discrimination were 4 times more for the families, with males being earning hand (OR=4.57; 95% CI= 1.19-18.31). Similarly, there exist higher odds of gender discrimination in low-income families (OR=5.10; 95% CI= 1.18-23.87). While maternal education reduces the chances of food discrimination (OR=0.10; 95% CI= 0.02-0.42)  Conclusions: Psychosocial factors such as large family size, low monthly income, males being earning hand and maternal education were found to be associated with gender discrimination regarding food distribution among family members.

Environmental Upgradation and Governance in Apparel Global Value Chains: A Case of Pakistan

This thesis explores environmental upgrading in the context of the apparel industry of Pakistan through the conceptual lens of the GVC framework and seeks to fill a theoretical and empirical void that presently exists in environmental upgrading and governance in GVC and marketing literatures. The thesis examines the type of environmental certifications acquired by the suppliers, the benefits and challenges of such upgrading, and perceived changes in buyer-supplier relationships along political, social, economic, operational and technological dimensions. A cross-sectional study has been conducted through a qualitative study of suppliers, buyers, PEPA, auditors and buying houses. The interviews were transcribed, and analyzed using multiple techniques of matching data to the arguments, rival explanations and pattern matching. Findings suggest that environmental upgrading altered the political relationships in terms of monitoring and compliance mechanisms. Changes were also observed in the social and technological relationships. The study concludes that environmental upgrading does not generate eco-rents, and the mechanisms through which it is carried out strategically positions certification bodies and not suppliers within GVC. Lack of strategic intent, energy crisis and prevailing terrorism situation in the country has rendered Pakistani suppliers uncompetitive in apparel trade. Suppliers need to overcome these challenges by developing strong international linkages and implementing collective environmental solutions. It is also suggested that there is a need to formulate a universal environmental standard. Global buyers that claim sustainability within their GVC must also financially reflect it in their sourcing practices from developing countries. In the end, recommendations for future research are provided.