فقہ اسلامی میں قسامت کا تصور

Islam lays great emphasis on security and the sanctity of human life. The holy Quran terms killing of an innocent person as killing of the whole humanity. It prohibits unjust killing of human being in unequivocal terms. The holy Qur’an and Sunnah terms killing of an innocent person as one of the greatest sins. An eternal torment is the destiny of a killer who takes life of a person unjustly. However, it is also a bitter fact that hardly   a crime free society could be found   anywhere in the world. Peace prevails only in those societies where culprits are brought to justice. This is why Islamic penal code has prescribed punishments for all kinds of crimes. It has prescribed punishment of Qisâs in case of intentional murder and Diyat (blood money in case of killing of a person by mistake, it is also due in case if remission is made by the heirs in intentional murder case). To prove the crime of murder, testimony of two reliable witnesses or confession of the killer is required before the court. However, if a corpse is found in a place where killer is unknown and witnesses are unavailable,    then Islam enjoins the process of Qasâmah to safeguard rights of the heirs of the deceased. Qasâmah is a process of taking oath by fifty persons selected by the heirs of the slain. In this article the concept of Qasâmah has been elaborated. It  has three parts , in the  first part conditions for the validity of  Qasâmah has been elaborated, while in the second part its process has been discussed with elaborate opinions  of jurists  regarding taking of  oath, as some of them opine that  the  heirs of the slain  have to take oath, mentioning name of the killer,   while others say  oath will be taken by the defendants that they  didn’t kill him, Both these opinions  have been discussed by producing arguments of  the both sides. While in the third part the issue of Qisâs and Diyat has been discussed as according to some jurists the Qasâmah entails Qisâs while other say that it entails Diyat only; arguments of both sides have been discussed in detail.

Evaluation of Esterases and Phosphatases in Three Strains of Callosobruchus Chinensis and Rhyzopertha Dominica Treated With Plant Extracts and Synthetic Pyrethroids

Stored grains have been attacked by different insect species for many years. To protect stored grains from insect attack, various control measures have been suggested. Current research was initiated in order to assess five plant extracts and three synthetic pyrethroids for their toxic and repellent efficiency and their effect on progeny inhibition of three strains of Callosobruchus chinensis and Rhyzopertha dominica. These treatments were also studied for their subsequent effects on the certain esterases and phosphatases enzymes of test insects. Azadirachta indica extract and deltamethrin were more effective. Significant mortality was obtained at the highest concentrations, after maximum exposure time. C. chinensis mortality with A. indica was 81.10, 69.23 and 86.82% in FSD, MLN and NNS strains respectively. 100% mortality was achieved with deltamethrin for all strains of C. chinensis. R. dominica mortality with A. indica was 65.19, 60.74 and 84.96% FSD, MLN and NNS strains respectively. Deltamethrin resulted in 95.56, 95.56 and 97.75% mortality of R. dominica Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. A. indica resulted in 79.99, 66.67 and 80.81% progeny inhibition of C. chinensis Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. 66.77, 60.32 and 70.40% reduction in progeny production of C. chinensis was achieved with deltamethrin, in Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. A. indica caused 90.22, 88.01 and 92.23% progeny inhibition of R. dominica in Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. Progeny inhibition of R. dominica was 90.46, 80.93 and 97.14% in Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively with deltamethrin. In repellency bioassay, A. indica resulted in 93.33, 90.67 and 94.67% repellency in C. chinensis Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain, respectively. With deltamethrin repellency was 92.00, 90.67 and 97.33% in C. chinensis Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. Percentage repellency in in case of R. dominica was 94.67, 85.33 and 92.00 in Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively, with A. indica. Repellency recorded with deltamethrin, in R. dominica was 90.67, 89.33 and 92.67% in Faisalabad, Multan and Nankana strain respectively. In case of enzymatic analysis, the inhibition of treatments was compared with the control. With A. indica treatment, in C. chinensis FSD strain, maximum AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE inhibition was 45.82, 29.98, 61.38, 43.65 and 50.81% respectively, 57.14, 39.98, 58.24, 41.04 and 50.58% respectively in MLN strain and 41.31, 28.87, 61.67, 45.24 and 50.32% respectively in NNS strain. Using M. azadirach, in C. chinensis FSD strain, maximum AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE inhibition was 55.82, 29.98, 53.37, 45.48 and 51.30% respectively, 63.81, 39.98, 52.67, 43.65 and 50.33% respectively in MLN strain and 51.98, 31.10, 52.84, 47.96 and 50.57% respectively in NNS strain. In pyrethroids, cypermethrin mostly resulted in high inhibition of enzymes. So, with cypermethrin maximum AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE inhibition was19.14, 18.54, 47.65, 36.33 and 42.45% respectively, in C. chinensis FSD strain, 37.14, 21.09, 48.42, 36.33 and 39.12% respectively, in MLN strain and 14.96, 17.43, 46.95, 38.32 and 39.99% respectively in NNS strain. In R. dominica FSD strain, treated with A. indica maximum AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE inhibition was 39.42, 43.77, 47.79, 41.38 and 52.30% respectively, 37.57, 39.94, 47.31, 41.90 and 48.46% respectively in MLN strain and 40.41, 45.99, 51.59, 42.15 and 50.51% respectively in NNS strain. With M. azadirach treatment, in R. dominica FSD strain, maximum AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE inhibition was 40.83, 42.94, 45.71, 40.47 and 47.84% respectively, 39.70, 39.94, 44.13, 40.99 and 43.86% respectively in MLN strain and 41.83, 45.17, 51.59, 42.15 and 50.51% respectively in NNS strain. Using pyrethroids, enzymes inhibition was recorded maximum in R. dominica NNS strain with cypermethrin, which resulted in 34.03, 43.80, 49.45, 31.41 and 48.34% inhibition of AChE, ALP, ACP, α-CE and β-CE respectively as compared to the control treatment.