مارک، ایڈورڈ ویسٹر
ایڈورڈ ویسٹر مارک کا انتقال
ایڈورڈ ویسٹر مارک نے جو ایک عرصہ تک لندن یونیورسٹی میں عمرانیات کا پروفیسر تھا، گزشتہ اکتوبر میں انتقال کیا، وہ ایک عمیق النظر فلسفی اور بین الاقوامی شہرت کا مالک تھا، اوائل زندگی میں اس کو خیال پیدا ہوا کہ اخلاقی خیالات اور مذہبی اعتقادات میں گہرا تعلق ہے، چنانچہ اس نقطہ نظر سے اس نے یورپ کے علاوہ دوسری قوموں کے روایات اور اعتقادات کا مطالعہ کرنا چاہا اور اس کے لئے مراکش کو منتخب کیا، اور وہاں جاکر چار سال تک مقیم رہا، یہاں اس نے نہ صرف انسانیاتی معلومات جمع کئے، بلکہ وہاں کے لوگوں طرز زندگی و غور و فکر سے بھی واقفیت حاصل کرکے ان کے رسم و رواج کو آسانی سے سمجھا جو تمدن کے مختلف دور میں پیدا ہوتے رہے، یہاں کی تحقیقات اس نے اپنی مشہور کتاب ’’اخلاقی تخیلات کی ابتدا اور نشوونما‘‘ (The origin and development of moral ideas) میں قلمبند کی جو دو جلدوں میں ۱۹۰۶ء اور ۱۹۰۸ء میں شائع ہوئی تھی، یہ کتاب بہت اہم اور بلند پایہ سمجھی جاتی ہے اور اخلاقیات پر ایک فلسفیانہ مقالہ یا اخلاقی خیالات کی تاریخ کہی جاسکتی ہے، اس کتاب کی خوبی یہ ہے کہ اس میں تحلیلی اور تاریخی تجزیوں میں امتزاج پیدا کرکے یہ دکھایا گیا ہے کہ اخلاقی پسندیدگی اور ناپسندیدگی کی ابتدا معاشرتی تکدر اور تشکر سے ہوتی ہے، ڈاکٹر ویسٹر مارک کی اور دوسری تصنیفات یہ ہیں، مراکش میں انسانی شادی، رسم اور اعتقاد کی تاریخ، (۲)اخلاقی اضافیت، (۳)عیسائی مذہب اور اخلاق۔
(’’ص ۔ ع‘‘، دسمبر ۱۹۳۹ء)
Islam lays great emphasis on security and the sanctity of human life. The holy Quran terms killing of an innocent person as killing of the whole humanity. It prohibits unjust killing of human being in unequivocal terms. The holy Qur’an and Sunnah terms killing of an innocent person as one of the greatest sins. An eternal torment is the destiny of a killer who takes life of a person unjustly. However, it is also a bitter fact that hardly a crime free society could be found anywhere in the world. Peace prevails only in those societies where culprits are brought to justice. This is why Islamic penal code has prescribed punishments for all kinds of crimes. It has prescribed punishment of Qisâs in case of intentional murder and Diyat (blood money in case of killing of a person by mistake, it is also due in case if remission is made by the heirs in intentional murder case). To prove the crime of murder, testimony of two reliable witnesses or confession of the killer is required before the court. However, if a corpse is found in a place where killer is unknown and witnesses are unavailable, then Islam enjoins the process of Qasâmah to safeguard rights of the heirs of the deceased. Qasâmah is a process of taking oath by fifty persons selected by the heirs of the slain. In this article the concept of Qasâmah has been elaborated. It has three parts , in the first part conditions for the validity of Qasâmah has been elaborated, while in the second part its process has been discussed with elaborate opinions of jurists regarding taking of oath, as some of them opine that the heirs of the slain have to take oath, mentioning name of the killer, while others say oath will be taken by the defendants that they didn’t kill him, Both these opinions have been discussed by producing arguments of the both sides. While in the third part the issue of Qisâs and Diyat has been discussed as according to some jurists the Qasâmah entails Qisâs while other say that it entails Diyat only; arguments of both sides have been discussed in detail.
The purpose of the study is to investigate the changing dynamics of validity of CAPM in the wake of its di erent models. For this study various existing models have been selected and transformed to measure the cost of equity for both emerging and developed markets. In addition, industry risk premium as suggested by extant literature is examined empirically in a comprehensive setting. Although prior literature suggests incorporating industry risk premium in the CAPM framework, but no empirical evidence is currently available in this context. For the purpose, aforementioned, the study gathers monthly data for six emerging and six developed countries from the year 2000 to 2017. Fama-Macbeth cross sectional regression is applied for calculation of estimators which is a proposed methodology to test the validity of di erent risk factors for capital assets pricing framework by the contemporary literature. Results suggest that overall local, global, downside, hybrid and industry adjusted betas signi cantly explain the average variations of stock returns in both emerging and developed markets. So it is recommended to employ CAPMs, which have originated in the developed markets for the estimation of cost of equity in developing markets and the other way round after required modi cations. Results for Local CAPM are validated for Pakistan, India, and South Africa from emerging markets and Germany and Japan from developed markets. Furthermore, results for Global CAPM are validated for Pakistan and Russia from emerging markets and Canada, Germany and Japan from developed markets. While UK and USA report a signi cant negative relationship between global beta and stock returns. Results for Downside CAPM are validated for Pakistan and India from emerging markets and for Canada and Japan from developed markets. Results for emerging risk premium for the Hybrid model are signi cantly positive for Pakistan market while industry risk premium is signi cantly positive for Pakistan, India, China and Brazil from emerging markets and for Canada and Germany from developed market. Although the issue of non-linearity and signi cance of unsystematic risk (residuals) persists.Conclusively, CAPM is still a viable solution in determining cost of equity for most of the stock markets. Further, Extended CAPM formulated in this study is noted more sophisticated in assessing the cost of equity as compared to rest of the models. In nutshell, this study o ers a comprehensive insight for corporate manager,- nancial analysts, policy makers, and individual investors for estimation of cost of equity. It also o ers the dynamics of cost of equity in multiple country''s setting, that provide an insight for global investors, FPI holders and local and global mutual fund managers to align their investment decisions in this regard.