Over the last two decades, China has emerged as an economic giant in the world economy. After joining the world trade organization in 2001, it became the largest exporter in the world since 2009, having the highest share in world gross domestic product based on purchasing power parity. China’s astounding economic success hinges on export-led growth, the same strategy that was behind the success of four Asian Tigers. China’s path to success is an inspiration for other developing countries; it is an example to follow. Pakistan is no exception and is trying to increase its own exports. However, Pakistan’s exports enhancing policies are a long way from being successful. China’s entry into the world market is a big country case of international trade. It can affect the export patterns of other countries that are supplying to the same destinations, having similar factor endowment. China has become the prime trading partner of the United States of America, which is a major export destination for Pakistan as well. Furthermore, textile is a major export sector for Pakistan and China is a big supplier in that sector. There is a likelihood that China’s export-led growth may be crowding out Pakistan’s exports from third country markets. There is no previous work on the topic with reference to Pakistan. This is the first study, which has investigated the crowding-out effect of China’s exports for all exports sectors of Pakistan. For comprehensive analysis, the study is divided into the following subsections. Firstly, five major export destinations of Pakistan are explored separately for all exports sectors, for competitive threat posed to Pakistan’s exports from China’s. Relative changes in market share are used as an indication of competitive threat. The role of revealed comparative advantage (RCA) in maintaining the market share of an export is observed for all exports. Secondly, the magnitude of the crowding-out effect of China’s export expansion on Pakistan’s exports is measured. In the third step, the study explores whether the Pak-China bilateral trade compensates for China’s crowding-out effect in the international market or is other way around. As China is the main trading partner of Pakistan, RCA patterns of both countries are explored as determinants of the bilateral trade pattern between Pakistan and China. Distance elasticity is also measured along with the other determinants of China’s exports. After the completion of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) distance travelled by China’s exports will be reduced substantially, leading to an increase in China’s exports. A gravity model approach was used for the analysis. Instrumental variable 2 stage least squares (IV2SLS) was applied to data by generalized methods of moments (GMM) to establish the causal relationship. Additionally, the method was successful to tackle the problems of endogeneity and heteroscedasticity. Other determinants of the exports of Pakistan and China were also included in the modelling. These determinants included gross domestic product of exporting and importing countries, distance, landlocked countries and common language. The study used secondary data which was collected through reliable sources as per the requirement of the study. It was concluded that Pakistan’s exports are crowded-out by China’s exports. It was a twodimensional analysis, destination wise and export category wise. Except mineral exports, there is no export category in Pakistan which is not under threat in at least one of the studied destinations. And there is no destination among the top five included in the study which is safe for all exports from Pakistan. In the second part, magnitude and direction wise, varying effect of China’s exports is found on different export sectors of Pakistan. Pak-China bilateral trade is enhancing the effect of China’s exports in the international market for most of the export categories. Among other determinants, the GDP of the importer has a significant positive effect on exports volume both in the case of Pakistan and China. Trade costs (distance and landlocked) hinder the exports volume of Pakistan and of China. For all exports of China, the distance coefficient is negative and significant, indicating that CPEC completion will have a positive effect on China’s exports. In comparison to China’s exports, Pakistan’s exports are more responsive to change in magnitude of any variable included in the model, except common language. It was also concluded that Pakistan is relying on the exports of primary goods and there is lack of value addition in the overall exports of Pakistan. Exports which compete successfully in the international market or perform well in bilateral trade with China are all primary, non-processed exports with little value addition. Pakistan’s exports cannot be enhanced only by internal facilitation, but the problem needs be addressed by taking into account the current and upcoming scenario of international trade where China is a major player in the market.
Linguists and Muslim jurists have depended heavily on the Arabic language in their researches about Islamic legislation. Their writings show a deep relationship between Islamic commandments and the rules of Arabic grammar. The three chapters of this research present a study of their work syntactically, and analytically to explore the earliest approaches and their various dimensions, and to detect the relationship with the Islamic commandments in the current time. The first chapter is about the role of nouns in deriving the Islamic commandments from the Quranic ayaat. The second chapter discusses the role of various verbs in deriving the Islamic commandments from the Quranic Ayaat. The third chapter is about the role of Arabic letters in deriving Islamic commandments from the Quranic Ayat. This study hopes to help not only the linguists of Arabic language but also the scholars of other related fields.
Dictionaries play an important role in the process of standardization of a language. Dictionaries are also used to elevate a language and to expand it. Compilation of a dictionary is an intricate process in itself. Once this process was Lexicographer’s oriented but now it is user oriented. English Lexicography has a long tradition and lexicographers are continuously making efforts to produce user friendly dictionaries. But situation is different as far as Urdu lexicography is concerned. The present study aimed at investigating the user perspective in Urdu Lexicography in Pakistan with special reference to children. In the first chapter, after giving a brief introduction to the present research, aims and objectives of this research are highlighted. Basically this study looks at four perspectives: to assess the needs of the target users, to evaluate the existing dictionaries and to propose the design features of a monolingual Urdu learners’ dictionary for children. During this process, we shall also look into the possibilities of collecting an Urdu Corpus as the basis of monolingual Urdu learners’ dictionary for children. In chapter 2, the researcher has discussed the role of dictionaries in language learning. Purpose of this discussion is to highlight the importance of dictionaries as language learning tool. Chapter 3 presents an overview of the researches done in the field of lexicography and an attempt is made to place the current research in the existing body of literature. In chapter 4, research methodology adopted for this research has been rationalized. As users’ perspective dominates this dissertation so it was necessary to investigate the specific needs of the children. The needs of the children are analyzed in chapter five and then in the next chapter selected monolingual Urdu dictionaries for children are analyzed in detail and a comparison is made between the needs of the users and the amount of information provided in these dictionaries. It was found that these dictionaries fail to fulfill the needs of the users. In chapter seven, an experiment conducted to check the effects of the use of a trial dictionary on students’ performance is described in detail. Results of the experiment showed that students performed better in comprehension test with the help of dictionaries. In the final chapter, a user friendly model of monolingual Urdu dictionaries for children has been presented and is explained with the help of some example entries. Possibilities of developing an Urdu corpus as the basis of a monolingual Urdu learners’ dictionary for children are also explored. This study is hoped to promote user friendly lexicographic practice for children in Urdu language. As users are the only judge to evaluate the effectiveness of a dictionary so this dissertation also suggests that users’ needs should be at the core of any lexicographic endeavor in the context of Urdu lexicography in Pakistan.