The study was conducted to investigate the relationship between school resource inputs and academic achievement at secondary level in Pakistan. School resource inputs have a vital role in the education process. The provision and availability of school resource inputs in schools is not important and beneficial until they are actually used efficiently. The focus of the provision and availability, and the use of school resource inputs, is to maximize the academic achievement of students within the limited funds available. School resource inputs include prior achievement, prior academic environment, leadership style, per pupil expenditures, pupil teacher ratio, class size, school facilities, instructional material and teacher quality. . The population of the study comprised all the secondary and higher secondary schools, secondary teachers and secondary students in Punjab. Overall, a total of 288 schools, 5760 students and 2880 teachers were the sample of the study. The study identified the availability and the use of school resource inputs through the ―School profile Proforma‖ and the ―Questionnaire‖. The longitudinal data of academic achievement of the same students from class VI to X were collected through ―Result Sheet‖. The study identified the extent of the use of school resource inputs i.e. leadership style, practical laboratories and instructional material. However, it was assumed that the basic school facilities and teacher quality are used where provided. The data were analyzed at school level and then collectively for the final analysis through Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to find out the simple relationship (association) and Stepwise Regression analysis was used to find out the differential impact of school resource inputs on academic achievement. The results of the study show that school resource inputs are, overall, the predictors of academic achievement in their collective function. However, they have the mixed effects on academic achievement in their individual function. The findings of the study show that prior achievement of students is the most important predictor of academic achievement and prior academic environment has some positive impact. Democratic leadership style is the best leadership style; however, it is not properly used. Per student expenditure, most of the basic school facilities and most of the items of instructional material have the mixed effects on academic achievement. Student teacher ratio has positive but larger class size has negative impact. Additionally, the five indicators of teacher quality i.e. academic and professional qualifications, in-service refresher courses/ trainings, teacher experience and teacher salary are not effective. The study also identified that school resource inputs are least provided, misallocated, and inefficiently and deficiently used. These are the main causes of the negative, insignificant and minor impact of some school resource inputs on academic achievement. It is also concluded that fairly allocation and efficient use of school resource inputs leads to the significant impact of school resource inputs on academic achievement. One of the policy implications of this study is that education standards for the provision, allocation and use of school resource inputs may be developed and implemented in Pakistan. This study also guides the policy makers and the educationists by formulating the lines of action how and to what extent the school resource inputs may be provided and used in schools.
Ijtiha'd is to make utmost endeavor in the light of the basic sources of Islam, the Qur'an and Sunnah to develop the most viable rulings on the new challenges of the time. Muslim scholars have always risen to new challenges. In the contemporary period many Muslim scholars attempted to resolve new problems keeping in view the very objectives of Islamic Law (mtufd al-shari’ah) , which is totally different from literal understanding and application of the rulings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. This article seeks to highlight the contribution of some Muslim scholars in the contemporary period to the application of matpsid al-shari'ah as a principle of ijtihud
The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is one of most destructive insect pests of agriculture and horticulture worldwide. It is a cryptic species complex, and biotypes of the complex have become serious pests in Pakistan because of their feeding and their ability to transmit cotton leaf curl virus (CLCuV). During 2007- 2008 and 2008-2009, the survey covered 40 cotton growing areas of the Punjab and Sindh provinces. Bemisia tabaci populations were sampled from cotton fields showing CLCuV infection. 100% prevalence was observed on the basis of typical begomovirus symptoms in cotton fields, both the years in Punjab and Sindh, Pakistan. The genetic diversity, biotype status of the Bemisia tabaci and its association with difference in Cotton Leaf Curl Disease incidence across both provinces were assessed by using random amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (mtCO1) gene sequences. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 sequences conducted by maximum-likelihood and maximum parsimony methods. The RAPD banding patterns showed considerable genetic variations among all 82 B.tabaci populations analyzed from each year. RAPD profiles generated 151 scorable amplification products, of which 77% were polymorphic in 2007 -2008 populations however 152 scorable amplification products were produced, of which 79% were polymorphic during 2008-2009 analysis. The study showed that the primer OPA-04 gave the unique and unambiguous DNA profiles that clearly distinguished biotype B from indigenous non B individuals. The primers gave polymorphic products of 150bp and 450bp with B biotype whereas 490bp and 1250bp with non B biotype. RAPD data clustered the B. tabaci samples on the basis of B and non B biotypes, regardless of the geographical origin of the populations. In both years analysis, 78 out of 80 Pakistani samples excluding the control populations fell in the non B cluster. The sub grouping between B.tabaci is diverse as Punjab populations set together with both Punjab and Sindh populations in this cluster. The B biotype populations formed an independent cluster contained B biotype reference population with two populations from Sindh. This shows that the presence of B biotype now termed Middle East Asia Minor 1 (MEAM 1) was restricted to a few locations of Sindh. This RAPD analysis showed that 96% of total B.tabaci samples studied are non B biotype (now termed Asia II 1), observed in cotton growing areas of Punjab and Sindh, Pakistan. These non B biotype B. tabaci are more diverse and indigenous to B biotype. It is estimated that genetic variations among non B populations increased by 2% over a year. Phylogenetic analyses of mtCO1 gene sequences congregated Pakistani B.tabaci with two genetic groups; Asia II 1(H, M, NA, non B biotypes) and MEAM 1 (B, B2 biotypes) in the year 2007-2008. However, the 2008-2009 samples fell into three distinctive clusters namely, Asia II 1, Asia II 5 and MEAM1. This phylogenetic inference revealed that the vast majority of the B.tabaci were Asia II 1 (non B biotype) and appeared well established in cotton growing regions of Punjab and Sindh province. This Asia II 1 cluster separated into two subgroups; subgroup A and subgroup B. The subgroup A, showed Pakistani populations shared close relationship with the Chinese, Indian and previously described Pakistani B.tabaci whereas the subgroup B clustered, Pakistani Bemisia populations with Nepal and Bangladesh populations. The high nucleotide identities (upto 99%) were observed in each group. MEAM1 was not detected in Punjab cotton growing areas by RAPD and phylogenetic analysis however identified from few locations of Sindh. Two populations from Pakpatan, Punjab and one from Khairpur, Sindh grouped with Asia II 5 (G biotype) with a high bootstrap support at 99%. The Asia II 5 is a new biotype observed in Pakistan and its presence is already reported in India and Bangladesh. This study is the first evidence of Asia II 5 presence in Punjab and Sindh, hence, the correlation between Asia II 5 and Cotton leaf curl disease (CLCuD) is yet unclear. The prevalence of Asia II 1 was sustained in these two year analysis of B.tabaci population from cotton. It seems that the distribution of this genetic group influence the distribution of CLCuD and plays a vital role in the spread of CLCuV all over Punjab and Sindh provinces, Pakistan. The phylogenetic study significantly supported the outcomes of RAPD analysis. The high genetic variations were observed in B.tabaci populations of cotton growing areas of Punjab and Sindh. The Asia II 1 (includes H, M, NA, non B biotypes) is prevalent in both provinces and associated with high incidence of CLCuD. The present study, gives the first indication of subsistence of Asia II 1 on cotton in Sindh and presence of Asia II 5 in Pakistan. This knowledge will contribute to the development of appropriate strategies with which to manage the disease in Pakistan.