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Home > An Investigation in to the Causes of Slow Diffusion of Tube Well Irrigation Technology in Nwfp-Pakistan

An Investigation in to the Causes of Slow Diffusion of Tube Well Irrigation Technology in Nwfp-Pakistan

Thesis Info

Access Option

External Link

Author

Pervaiz, Urooba

Program

PhD

Institute

The University of Agriculture

City

Peshawar

Province

KPK

Country

Pakistan

Thesis Completing Year

2009

Thesis Completion Status

Completed

Subject

Applied Sciences

Language

English

Link

http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/1579

Added

2021-02-17 19:49:13

Modified

2024-03-24 20:25:49

ARI ID

1676725472060

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Irrigation is one of the most important ingredients of the Green Revolution technology, which took place in early 70’s. With out irrigation water, desirable results, of the new agricultural technology cannot be achieved. NWFP is mainly a mountainous region and its agriculture is characterized by low yield per unit and poor application of required inputs. About 54% of the total cultivated land still depends on rainfall which is scantly. Keeping in view the wide scope and importance of irrigation for enhancing agricultural output the present study was initiated. The study aims to analyze the existing situation of tube well irrigation and to pinpoint the main causes of slow diffusion of tube well technology in NWFP. Moreover, an attempt was also made to examine the role of extension agent in the adoption and diffusion of tube well technology. This study was based on primary as well as secondary data. The universe of the study consisted of the whole NWFP. Multistage sampling method was used to select a required sample, from four districts randomly selected. The number of respondents interviewed from district Charsada were 92, from DIK 70, from Malakand 68, and 61 respondents from district Nowshera, hence the total sample size was 291. The selected respondents were grouped into three categories namely small (146), medium (81) and large (64). The average size of land holding was 8 acres for small, 16 for medium and 92 acres for large farmers. Fragmentation seriously constrained tube well installation in the study area. The rate of tube well installation was less than 10 per year on average, thus there is clear justification and wide scope for future expansion if tube wells in the study area. Tube well irrigation not only enhances agricultural productivity, but socio-economic condition of the farmers was also improved. The role of government and NGO’s remained insignificant, because 288 respondents installed tube wells by themselves. The soil of the study area was found suitable for tube well installation. Moreover, water table was cost effective for the respondents in the study area. The discharge capacity of tube wells in the study area ranged from 2” to 4”. Majority of the respondents (96%) did not test the quality of water and soil. The overwhelming majority of the respondents (266) could not get loan. Extension services were heavily criticized and their role in the adoption and diffusion was negligible. The linkages among farmers, extension workers, and research institutes remained weak and poor. Small farmers were more prone to operational problems. The main operational problems were lack of spare parts, shortage of power, lack of skilled labour, and frequent load shedding of electricity. Almost all the sample respondents reported inadequate and untimely availability of inputs. The main factors responsible for late adoption and slow diffusion of tube well technology are; size of land holding, poor financial condition, lack of technical know how, topography, lack of power supply (electricity/diesel), inefficient and ineffective extension staff, imperfect market and policy negligence of the government. As a policy matter farmers (particularly small farmers) need to be encouraged to install tube wells, through the provision of soft loans and technical assistance.
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اردو مصمتوں کا تعارف

حاصل تحقیق

زبان اللہ تعالیٰ کی عطا کردہ نعمتوں میں سب سے بڑی اور عظیم نعمت ہے۔ اس پر سنجیدگی سے غورکرنے کا سلسلہ روزِ اول سے ہی جاری ہے۔ قبل مسیح کےمفکروں اور دانش وروں نے بھی اس پر بہت غور وخوض کیا اور اس کے متعلق مختلف نظریات قائم کیے، اس سلسلے میں مختلف کتب موجود ہیں جو زبان کے متعلق قبل مسیح کے نظریات سے بھری پڑی ہیں۔

اس کے بعد آنے والے مختلف مفکرین نے اس پر تحقیقی کام جاری رکھا۔ اور زبان کے متعلق اپنے نظریات پیش کرتے رہے۔ ان نظریات سے مختلف ماہرین لسانیات نے لسانیات کےمختلف شعبے تخلیق کیے اور ہر شعبے میں خاطر خواہ کام کیا۔

انیسویں صدی میں لسانیات پر باقاعدہ تحقیقی ادارے بننے شروع ہوئے،مغرب نے اس سلسلے میں بہت کام کیا، لیکن یہ بات عیاں ہے کہ بیسویں صدی میں ادب پر جتنا کام ہوا وہ گزشتہ ایک صدی تک نہ ہو سکا، بلاشبہ اس صدی کو ادب کی صدی کہا جاتا ہے اس میں باقی شعبوں کے ساتھ ساتھ لسانیات جیسے اہم مضمون پر بھی بہت زیادہ خامہ فرسائی کی گئی۔

زبان میں لسانیات کے موضوع کے حوالے سے اگر دیکھا جائے تو یہ مختلف عناوین اور اس کےمسائل ومباحث کو سمیٹے ہوئےہے۔ جہاں اس کا تعلق نطق انسانی سے ہے وہاں زبان کے قواعد اور لغتیات پر بھی بحث کرتی ہے۔ اگر لسانیات کی صرف نطق انسانی کے حوالے سے بات کی جائے تو یہ بات عیاں ہے کہ لسانیات کا کسی مخصوص گروہِ انسانی سے تعلق نہیں بلکہ یہ دنیا کی تمام زبانوں کے مسائل کو زیر بحث لاتی ہے۔ مختلف ماہرین لسانیات نے اس کی تعریف مختلف حوالوں سے کی ہے۔ ان میں چند ایک درج ذیل ہیں: 

’’زبان کا سائنسی مطالعہ لسانیات کہلاتا ہے۔

Issues of Ethnic Diversity and Just Development in Pakistan with a Special Focus on the Seraiki Ethnic Group

Ethnicity implies the sense of belonging together as the cultural group in a given society. It is a complex combination of racial, cultural and historical characteristics by which people differentiate themselves from other groups. This research envisages the genesis and the evolution of ethnicity as a political concept, the problems of ethnicity in a heterogeneous, multicultural state and the phenomenon of ethno-nationalism in its historical and analytical perspective in the federation of Pakistan with special reference to the status of Seraiki ethnic group. In fact ethnic expressions exist in all multicultural states and distinct ethnic groups evaluate themselves through communal prism. The less privileged groups develop abhorrence against the over – privileged groups due to the persistence of socioeconomic injustices. Factors like the gap between core and periphery, asymmetrical modernization and authoritarian trends lead towards ethnic disruption. Same is the case with Pakistan, a multilingual, multiracial and multiethnic state with federating units reflecting various diversities. The analysis of ethno-nationalism in Pakistan highlights factors, like regional cultural identity, relative deprivation among regions, centralized state structure, denial of accepting regional language as national language, and the absence of democratic values as being the root causes of the Bengali separatism. The assimilationist policies of the government do not acknowledge the regional/ethnic aspirations. Denial of pluralistic approach has been thwarting the demand for provincial autonomy. The nature of ethnic consciousness in the Seraiki belt, analyzed in this article, is found to be nurtured by the perceived socio-economic injustice at intra-provincial level—between the regions of South Punjab and Central and Northern Punjab put together

Prevalence Characterization and Evaluation of Drug Resistant Bacteria from Abbottabad

Treatment of infectious diseases has become difficult because of the emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria. Main reasons of antibiotic resistance include the irrational use of broad spectrum antibiotics, prescription of antibiotics without doing culture tests, self medication because of over the counter availability of the antibiotics and a long hospital stay. This study was designed to determine the frequency of multi drug resistant (MDR) isolates among clinical isolates from in and out-patients at the Ayub Teaching Hospital (ATH), Abbottabad, characterize the infection related isolates phenotypically by two methods, disc diffusion and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and evaluate whether the different methods are efficient tools in routine epidemiological investigations. A total of 405 samples were sent to the microbiology section of the Ayub Teaching Hospital for culture and sensitivity. Among these 68.64% samples showed bacterial growth which included Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus species and streptococcus species. Gram negative bacteria were the most prevalent group with percentage of 56.12%, while Gram positive was 43.88%. The most prevalent bacteria were E. coli (41.7%) followed by S. aureus (35.25%). P. aeruginosa (8.27%), Streptococcus spp. (7.19%), Proteus spp. (5.03%), Enterococcus spp. (1.43%), and Klebsiella spp. (1.07%). The samples including urine, pus, blood etc received for culture and sensitivity were further processed according to standard microbiological techniques. The properly identified strains were subjected to antimicrobial testing by the modified KirbyBauer Disc diffusion method and MIC method following the Clinical Laboratory and Standards (CLSI) guidelines. The commonly used antibiotics including; amoxicillin, amoxicillin+clavulanic acid, cephradine, ceftazidime, cefoperazone+sulbactam, ceftizoxime, cefuroxime, ceftriaxone, imipenem, meropenem, erythromycin, cefaclor, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin, trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole were employed for testing. 67.92% of S. aureus were isolated from pus, 10.96% from urine, and 38.46% from miscellaneous samples. 24.49% isolates were found to be Methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) 75.51% were Methicillin sensitive S. aureus (MSSA). Among MSSA, 37.84% were found to be multi drug resistant (MDR). All the 24 MRSA were also found to be MDR. In total, 53.06% isolates were found to be MDR. The most potent antibiotic was imipenem with 94.90% activity followed by cefoxitin and trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole. All MRSA strains were 100% sensitive to imipenem. Resistance shown to cephalosporins ranged from 50 to 83.33%. Resistance was high in MRSA as compared to MSSA. MSSA like MRSA were all 100% resistant to amoxicillin, 74.32 % to ceftazidime and 59.46% to cefaclor. These MSSA were sensitive to imipenem (93.24%), Trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole (68.92%), and amoxicillin+clavulanic acid (51.35%). MRSA were resistant to multiple antibiotics. In case of E. coli high resistance was observed for cephradine (73.28%) followed by cefuroxime, ceftazidime, meropenem and erythromycin. Imipenem was the most efficient antibiotic. MIC studies confirmed that cephradine is the most resistant of all antibiotics tested and imipenem is the most effective of all antibiotics tested. The most effective antibiotic against P. aeruginosa was imipenem, and high resistance was observed against erythromycin and cefuroxime (100%). MIC studies showed that amoxycillin+clavulanic acid was the most effective antibiotic with 65.22% susceptibility and erythromycin (100%) is the most resistant of all antibiotics tested. Streptococcus spp. showed maximum resistance against meropenem (100%) followed by ceftriaxone and cephradine. Imipenem showed excellent activity (100%). MIC studies found that cefepime, meropenem and ceftriaxone are the most resistant of all tested antibiotics. Imipenem and trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole were most effective having 90% susceptibility. Proteus spp. showed maximum resistance against cephradine (85.71%) followed by cefuroxime and amoxicillin+clavulanic acid. Imipenem and ceftriaxone showed excellent (100%) activity against the Proteus spp. MIC studies showed that ceftizoxime was most effective while gentamycin, cephradine and meropenem are the most resistant of all tested antibiotics. Enterococcus spp. showed maximum resistance against cephradine, cefaclor and meropenem. MIC studies confirmed that cephradine was most resistant of all tested antibiotics. Ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxone, gentamycin, cefoperazone+sulbactam, amoxicillin and imipenem showed 25% resistance. Klebsiella spp. showed 100% resistance against cephradine, cefuroxime and amoxicillin and 100% sensitivity to cefaclor, meropenem, ceftazidime, amoxicillin+clavulanic acid, trimethoprim+Sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxone, gentamycin, ceftizoxime and imipenem. MIC studies indicated that amoxycillin was most resistant of all antibiotics and all the Klebsiella spp. were sensitive to ceftizoxime, trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, cefaclor, gentamycin and imipenem. In this study 65.83% isolates were identified as MDR Gram positive and Gram negative microorganisms. 53.55% of MDR isolates were obtained from urine, 38.25% from pus, 1.64% from High vaginal swab (HVS) and 6.56% from miscellaneous samples. E. coli was the most frequent (40.98%) multi-drug resistant isolate in the current study followed by S. aureus (28.42%), P. aeruginosa (11.48%), Strep spp. (10.38%), Proteus spp. (6.01%), Klebsiella spp. (1.64%), and Enterococcus spp. (1.09%). The study revealed that antibiotic resistance has become a significant problem and will continue as bacteria continue to evolve under the selective pressure of antibiotics. Unfortunately, the misuse of these life saving medications, coupled with bacteria’s amazing ability to adapt, has led to an increase in the number of drug-resistant organisms. In response, scientists are scrambling to develop new drugs. The most important steps in preventing nosocomial infections are to first recognize their occurrence and then establish policies to prevent their development. Slowing the emergence and spread of bacteria involves the cooperation of health care personnel, educators, and the general public. Physicians should prescribe antimicrobial medications only when appropriate. The public must be educated about the appropriateness and limitations of antimicrobial therapy. Patients need to carefully follow prescribed instructions when taking antimicrobials.