ولیم میکڈوگل
گذشتہ نومبر میں انگلستان کے مشہور ماہر نفسیات ولیم میکڈوگل کا انتقال ہوگیا، وہ ۱۸۷۱ء میں لنکاشائر میں پیدا ہوا،مانچسٹر میں تعلیم پاکر کیمبرج یونیورسٹی میں داخل ہوا، اور آخر میں لندن یونیورسٹی سے طب کی ڈگری حاصل کی، لیکن نفسیات میں اس کا مطالعہ اتنا گہرا تھا کہ وہ لندن یونیورسٹی میں اس کا لکچرار مقرر ہوا، اور پھر ذہنی فلسفہ کا پروفیسر ہوکر آکسفورڈ چلاگیا، ۱۹۲۰ء میں وہ ممالک متحدہ بلالیا گیا، جہاں وہ ہارورڈ اور ڈیوک یونیورسٹی میں معلمی کے فرائض انجام دیتا رہا۔
اس نے مندرجہ ذیل کتابیں لکھی ہیں، جن میں سے ہر ایک کے بہت سے اڈیشن شائع ہوچکے ہیں، (۱)خلاف معمول نفسیات کا ایک خاکہ، (۲)ذہین اجتماع، (۳)نفسیات کردار کا مطالعہ، (۴)مردوں کی قوتیں، (۵)زندگی کا مذہب اور سائنس، (۶)بورنیو کے غیر شائستہ قبائل، (۷)معاشرتی نفسیات کا مقدمہ، (۸)نفسیات کا ایک خاکہ، (۹)’’زندگی کی سیرت اور طور طریقے، ان میں ’’معاشرتی نفسیات کا مقدمہ‘‘ زیادہ مقبول ہے، نفسیات سے دلچسپی رکھنے والے طلبہ کے لئے ’’نفسیات کا ایک خاکہ‘‘ بھی مفید اور ضروری کتاب ہے، زندگی کی سیرت اور طور طریقے‘‘ آسان اور عام پسند ہے۔
ولیم میکڈوگل نے نفسیات کے اتنے مختلف نظریئے قائم کئے ہیں، کہ ان پر آئندہ بہت سی کتابیں اور شرحیں لکھی جائیں گی، لیکن اس نے سب سے زیادہ ’’جبلت‘‘ پر لکھا ہے، جبلت کی تعریف اس نے یہ کی ہے کہ یہ حسب منشا کام کرنے کی ایک فطری اور پیدائشی صلاحیت کا نام ہے، جو انسان کے علاوہ جانوروں، پرندوں اور کیڑوں پر بھی پائی جاتی ہے، ولیم میکڈوگل کے خیال کے مطابق چودہ جبلتیں ہوتی ہیں، مثلاً نقل، کھیل، خوشی، محبت، نفرت، غصہ، رنج، لڑائی، فرار، بے چینی، غول بندی، جنسی خواہش وغیرہ، بعض ماہرین نفسیات کا خیال ہے کہ جبلتیں صرف تین ہی ہوتی ہیں، خود غرضانہ، معاشرتی...
The emergence of human milk banks for premature and underweight babies in the early twentieth century raised many questions about the proscription of breastfeeding kinship as are in Islamic jurisprudence. Many Islamic scholars tries to find its solution in the light of Quran, Sunnah and the sayings of early Imams of Fiqh, but their opinion about this matter was different like the differences of sayings of some Imams, until Islamic Organization for Medical Sciences based in Kuwait and Islamic fiqh Academy Jeddah, called Summits on this issue and decided against the establishment of such banks in Islamic world. The issue seemed to be almost solved until European Council for Fatwa and Research launched an appeal in 2003 against their solution and demanded to legitimate the use of Human Milk from these banks for the children of Muslim families in Europe and USA using the public scourge canon (Umum al Balwa) of fiqh. This appeal once again opened the door of discussion on this matter. This article is an overview of the sayings of early and modern jurisprudents and pros and cons of human milk banks in the quest of solution of this modern problem in the light of Islamic shariah, so that a just and balanced opinion may be adopted in this matter as it is motto of Islamic Law. This discussion will also affect many new problems faced by Muslim communities in European countries as well as Islamic countries in modern era
Studies on effect of different hosts on biology of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) carried out under laboratory conditions at 26±2°C and 65±5% R. H. indicated that the incubation period of eggs of C. carnea females feeding on different hosts as larvae was significantly (P <0.001) different from each other. The order of larval period on different prey species was Sitotroga cerealella > Aphis gossypii > Phenacoccus solenopsis > mixed host diet > Pectinophora gossypiella > Helicoverpa armigera.The maximum (100%) and minimum (50%) survival to adult stage was recorded on S. cerealella and P.gossypiella as hosts. The highest fecundity per female (503.3±9.17) and fertility (85.61±0.68) of eggs were recorded for females reared on S. cerealella eggs as a larval diet. C. carnea larvae consumed maximum amount of food when feeding on S. cerealella eggs followed by A. gossypii. The insects reared on artificial diet laid more eggs which were significantly more fertile than the eggs of insects feeding on S. cerealella. Survival to adult stage was also significantly higher for those insects feeding on artificial diet as larvae. Larval density had significant (P <0.001) effect on larval and pupal duration, pupal weight and percent adult emergence. When C. carnea was reared on different temperature regimes, 26°C was found to be the optimum temperature regime with significantly higher pupal recovery, adult emergence, fecundity and fertility of eggs. Experiments conducted at lower temperature regimes for extending the shelf-life of C. carnea indicated that duration of storage and temperature significantly affected egg survival. No egg survived when stored at 5°C. Egg stored at 7 and 9°C had 66.0 and 71.52% survival and all eggs were killed when stored for more than one week. Lower temperature had negative effect on survival of first instar C. carnea. Second and third instar C. carnea larvae showed better survival at lower temperature during storage compared with first instar. Compared with eggs and larvae, pupal stage of C. carnea was more sensitive to lower temperature regimes. Duration of storage and temperature adversely affected fecundity of females and fertility of eggs. Larval mass-rearing methods indicated that rearing of individual larva in plastic tubes yielded highest larval survival and percent adult emergence compared with other two methods. Different concentrations of various proteins in the artificial adult diet of C. carnea had a significant (P <0.001) effect on fecundity and fertility of eggs. The highest fecundity (785.12±25.75) and fertility (89.23±0.36) of eggs was recorded for adults feeding on diet containing Nu lure (5.0 ml diet -1 ). Among all colours tested, C. carnea females preferred black colour as a substrate for egg-laying and laid the highest (91.00%) xieggs. C. carnea laid highest number of eggs when a sex ratio of 1: 3 (male: females) was maintained. Radiation of C. carnea larvae and pupae affected the biological parameters. Larval period were extended when larvae were irradiated as first, second and third instars at 5 Gy. At higher dose levels, the biological parameters were affected negatively. Toxicity of insecticides against eggs of C. carnea varied significantly. Spinosad was non-toxic causing no egg mortality, abamectin was slightly toxic causing 2.5% mortality, while methomyl was highly toxic insecticide causing 26.25% mortality at field application dose rate. When C. carnea larvae and adults were exposed to insecticides, methomyl was found the most toxic and spinosad the least toxic insecticides. C. carnea egg cards were released in cotton (cv. NIAB-78) field for population management of sucking insect pests. Aphid, Aphis gossypii population reduction in predator released treatments was significant (P <0.001). By the end of season predator was able to cause 76.13 and 75.02% population reduction of aphid during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Release of C. carnea cards in cotton crop significantly (P <0.001) reduced the population of jassid, Amrasca devastans; thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis and whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. The level of population reduction varied between different pest species. Population reduction was 83.70 and 76.07% for jassid; 37.59 and 60.32% for thrips and 51.84 and 44.08% for whitefly during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Release of C. carnea egg cards also had a significant effect on resident population of C. carnea in predator released treatments compared with control treatments. When C. carnea larvae were released in field cage study, third instar larvae were significantly (P <0.001) more effective than first and second instars in reducing sucking insect pest population in cotton.