Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorph = Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk) is an economically important pathogen of solanaceous vegetables, causing black scurf, damping-off, stem canker, and root rot in these crops. R. solani is a species complex of several anastomosis groups (AGs) that exhibit DNA base sequence homology and/or affinities. To date, thirteen AGs of R. solani have been internationally reported. The present study determines the occurrence of different AGs of R. solani on Potato, Tomato, and Chilli together with their morpho-molecular characterization. Survey of different locations of districts Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Attock, Chakwal, and Federal Capital Islamabad revealed maximum mean disease incidence on potato was recorded in Attock (37.4%) followed by Islamabad (35.8%), Jhelum (32.1%), Rawalpindi (30.5%) while minimum mean disease incidence was recorded in district Chakwal (20.2%). Maximum mean disease incidence on tomato was observed in Islamabad (38.7%) followed by Attock (36.3%), Rawalpindi (34.9%), and Jhelum (31.8%) while minimum in district Chakwal (29.6%). Mean disease incidence on chilli was maximum in Attock (30.9%), followed by Rawalpindi (30.1%), Islamabad and Jhelum (29.5%), while minimum in district Chakwal (27.0%). At least 63, 67, and 58 isolates of R. solani were recovered from potato, tomato, and chilli respectively. Fungal colonies isolated on malt extract agar (MEA) medium were light grey to brown in colour with plentiful mycelial growth and branched hyphae. A septum was always present in the branch of hyphae near the originating point with a slight constriction at the branch. The hyphal distance between two septa ranged between 66.6 to 150.3 μm and hyphal diameter from 4.8 to 8.3 μm. Majority of the isolates produced rough sclerotia and were superficially present on the hyphal mass. No conidia or conidiophores were observed from cultures on malt extract xxv agar (MEA) medium. All isolates were multinucleate when subjected to 4’-6 diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) stain. Based on these morphological characteristics of fungal hyphae, isolates were identified as R. solani. Recovered isolates subjected to pathogenicity tests confirmed 47, 42, and 37 isolates from potato, tomato, and chilli respectively were highly virulent. Restriction analysis of PCR-amplified ribosomal DNA with four discriminant enzymes (MseI, AvaII, HincII, and MunI) revealed recovered isolates belong to; AG-2-1, AG-2-2, AG-3 PT, AG-4 HG I, AG-5, and AG-6. Isolates were further paired with tester strains of R. solani AGs which confirmed the results of AG composition revealed by RFLP analysis. Amplification of Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA with primers ITS1/ITS4 and sequence analysis exhibited 99-100% identity with already reported AGs. Isolates recovered from potato belong to AG-3 PT (76.5%), AG-5 (8.5%), AG-4 HG I (4.2%), AG-2-1 (6.3%), and AG-2-2 (4.2%). AG-3 PT was widely distributed to major potato growing areas while others were confined to distinct locations. Isolates recovered from tomato belong to AG-3 PT (64.2%), AG-2-1 (14.2%), AG-2-2 (9.5%), AG-5 (7.1%), and AG-4-HGI (4.7%). AG-3 PT was widely distributed to major tomato growing areas followed by AG-2-1 while other groups were confined to distinct locations. Similarly, AG-4 HGI (59.4%) was also widely distributed to chilli growing areas. Other AGs recovered from chilli belong to AG-2-1 (16.2%), AG-6 (10.8%), AG-3 PT (8.1%), and AG-5 (5.4%). This is the first study on AG composition, genetic variability, virulence, and molecular characterization of Pakistani isolates of R. solani. These findings will provide the basis for further understanding the infection of different AGs on differential hosts which will help in the development of control strategies for management of Rhizoctonia diseases on solanaceous vegetables and other economic crops being infected by this fungus.
نُشِرت قصیدۃ ’’الکولیرا‘‘ في بیروت ووصلت نسختھا ببغداد في أول کانون الأول عام 1947م وفي النصف الثاني من الشھر نفسہ صدر دیوان بدر شاکر السیّاب (أزھار ذابلۃ) في بغداد، تقول نازک بأن في ھذا الدیوان قصیدۃ حرۃ الوزن ولہ في بحر الرمل عنواناً (ھل کان حباً) ولکن علق علی ھذہ القصیدۃ في الحاشیۃ بأنھا من"الشعر مختلف الأوزان والقوافي" وھذا النموذج منھا :
ھل یکون الحبّ أني بتّ[1] عبداً للتمني أم ھو الحب أطراح الأمنیات والتقاء الثغر بالثغر ونسیان الحیاۃ واختفاء العین في العین انتشاء کانثیال عاد یفني في ھدیر أو کظل في غدیر[2]
ثم وضحت الشاعرہ نازک الملائکۃ في قضایا الشعر المعاصر بأن ظھور قصیدۃ (الکولیرا) و (ھل کان حباً) لم یلفت نظر الجمھور والقراء؛ ولکن حصل تعلیق واحد فقط في مجلۃ (العروبۃ) علی أسلوب ووزن قصیدۃ (الکولیرا) ولکن مضت سنتان لم یکتب أحد شعراً حراً ولا تعلیقاً آخر علی الشعر الحر۔ ولکن عندما ظھر دیوان نازک الملائکۃ (شظایا ورماد) عام 1949م قامت ضجۃ شدیدۃ في صحف العراق ومناقشات في الأوساط الأدبیۃ، فبعضھم تنبأوا لھذہ الدعوۃ الجدیدۃ بالفشل وبعضھم تشجعوا واستجابوا لہ۔
Water symbolizes life on the earth. All kinds of existence depend on water. Allah has created great reservoirs of water on this earth which cater to the needs of all living beings, but human negligence is making these resources polluted. Pollution not only poses threats to human life, it also endangers marine life and resources. These threats have been increased manifold by industrial revolution and increasing human population. The same factors are also responsible for the increased use of water. Many countries have employed distillation processes to provide clean water for the increasing demands of population, agriculture and industries. Islamic jurisprudence also takes into account different types of water, some of which can be used in cleansing rituals for worship, while some cannot be used. The question arises whether the purified water by scientific process will be "Ṭahir & Muṭṭahir" and can be used for ablution and other Islamic rituals? Will Islamic Jurist accept it as "Istiḥalah"? The following study will outline the details of distilled water to see whether it can be used for daily chores and ablution rituals or not.
This study examines the dominant elements of Transitivity (Ideational meaning), and the lexical features of Samuel Beckett’s dramatic texts with special reference to Waiting for Godot, Endgame, Happy Days, All That Fall, and Krapp’s Last Tape. The significance of the linguistic features of these texts has also been explored. The study also attempts to investigate the conformity of linguistic interpretation with the Existential interpretations of Waiting for Godot. The analysis of data was conducted by using computational tools like UAMCT, MAT, SUAS and AntConc. However, UAMCT was used as the main tool and the rest of the tools were just used to ensure validity of results and to supplement some areas of analysis which were deficient in UAMCT. The study has found that Beckett’s dramatic texts have a considerable amount of Material processes going on in the world of the plays but these processes are less directed to a Goal and are even agentless too. The processes are also not spatially and temporally situated. The linguistic analysis reveals that his dramatic texts are a linguistic paradox; lexically simple but structurally complex. The linguistic features of Waiting for Godot establish certain themes like, ‘Alienation’, Directionlessnes’, ‘Ambivalence’, ‘Nothingness’, ‘Existence’, ‘Skepticism’, ‘Boredom’, and ‘Pessimism’. These themes conform to the Existential interpretations of Waiting for Godot. We find a linguistic spontaneity of Existential themes in the play. In a nutshell, Beckett has not narrated the predicament of Existence but made it happen linguistically in Waiting for Godot. The study finds that Endgame, Happy Days, All That Fall, and Krapp’s Last Tape also exhibit similar syntactic and lexical features as that of Waiting for Godot. It has also been found out, as a result of this study, that Waiting for Godotand the other four plays of Beckett (Endgame, Happy Days, All That Fall, and Krapp’s Last Tape) have communicative qualities of an extempore interactive oral text. Beckett’s plays also have some qualities of a narrative text. It is due to these qualities that the plays are able to make a mark on the minds of their readers. The present report consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 describes the scope and nature of the study by providing introduction to Beckett, Waiting for Godot and Existential context of Beckett. This chapter gives a detailed background of the problem, states the problem, aims of the study, research questions, significance, methodology and limitations of the study. Chapter 2 presents the survey of the related literature in the areas of SFL, application of linguistic theory to the study of literary text, application of computational tools to the study of literary and nonliterary texts. Chapter 3 encompasses the procedures and methods of data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents a detailed analysis and interpretation of the texts of Waiting for Godot, Endgame, Happy Days, All That Fall, and Krapp’s Last Tape. Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the results produced through data analysis and interpretation in Chapter 4. Discussion, implications and conclusion of the results of the present study are also given in the same chapter.