Agricultural sector is considered the bedrock of Pakistan economy in terms of its contribution in GDP, export earning, labour force absorption and supply of raw materials for industrial units. However, its productivity was not sustain to meet the dietary requirements of the growing population. Because of various limitations faced by farming community, per unit yield in Pakistan has been graded in the lower to middle ranged economics of the world. At national level due to rapid population growth per capita land and water availability is squeezing with the passage of time, therefore sustainable growth rate in agricultural sector is utmost necessary to ensure food security and overall national development. Sugarcane is a major cash crop that serves as a building block for sugar industry in Pakistan. At national level about 8.76 million farmers are involved in sugarcane production along with employment of 100,000 people in sugar industry. It was grown on an area of 1.14 million hectares with production of 62.65 million tonnes during 2014-15. Sugarcane national yield level (50 tonns/hectare) was noted low compare to international level (70 tonnes/hectare), however, sugar consumption (25.83 kg per capita) during the year 2004-05 was highest in Pakistan compare to other South Asian countries. The present study was designed to calculate per acre gross revenue, total cost and net return along with technical, allocative and economic efficiency of sugarcane production in three major sugarcane growing districts (Mardan, Charsadda and D.I. Khan) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Determinants of technical, allocative and economic efficiency were also investigated. Primary data on sugarcane production, inputs and its cost was collected for crop year 2014-15 from 303 respondents. Out of total 303 respondents, 109 sugarcane growers were interviewed in district Mardan, 118 in Chardada and 76 in D.I. Khan through proportional allocation technique. Stochastic frontier function approach was used to estimate technical, allocative and economic efficiency scores of sugarcane farms in study area. In order to identify inefficiency sources the technical and allocative inefficiency score was regressed separately on socio-economic characteristics of sugarcane growers that were considered for this study. Cobb-Douglas type stochastic frontier production function was estimated by OLS and MLE techniques. District wise profile of study area shows that district Mardan occupy 1632 km2 area with population of 2.36 million. Its major crops are tobacco, sugarcane, wheat, rice and maize. It share 28.52 % area and 29.78% production in overall provincial area under sugarcane crop and its production. Main sources of irrigation are canals, tube wells and lift irrigation system. District Charsadda is the second district of study area that occupies 996 km2 areas with 1.02 million populations. 86% of its area is irrigated. Its major crops are sugarcane, sugar beet, maize, tobacco along with orchards and vegetables. It shares 32.41% and 31.49% in overall provincial sugarcane area and production respectively. Third district included in study area was D.I. Khan that is the southernmost district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. District D.I. Khan has the characteristics of extremely unequal land distribution, low land utilization and high tenancy ratio. Sugarcane is considered a major crop along with cotton, rice wheat and maize. In study area land use intensity was found high in district Mardan (95%) followed by Charsadda (92%) and D.I. Khan (42%). In study area respondent’s average age, education and farming experience was noted 38.38, 4.96 and 12.78 years with standard deviation of 11.87, 3.77 and 7.02 respectively. Majority (45.21%) of respondents were found in age group of 31 to 45 years. Average family size and extension contacts were arrived at 10.26 and 7.14 with standard deviation of 3.18 and 2.80 respectively. In study area average farm to home distance was 623.14 meters with standard deviation of 263.85 meters. 60.40 percent respondents lied within the distance of one kilometer (500-1000 meter). In study area 52 % respondents were found involved in off-farm activities with almost 50 % standard deviation. Out of total 303 respondents 36.63 % were found tenants while 42.24 % and 21.12 % were owners and owner-cum tenants respectively. Profitability of sugarcane growers was estimated district wise as well as combines. Per acre overall average yield was noted 24,420.73 kg with total cost of production Rs.83, 473/- . Results of the study also revealed that per acre average cost was high in district D.I. Khan (Rs. 80,397.43) followed by district Mardan (Rs.77, 771) and Charsadda (Rs.77, 083). Among inputs labour days, seed and tractor hours applied for various field operations were found major constituents of total cost of production, its share was more than 50% in overall per acre cost of production. Per acre average labor days employed were high in district Mardan (57.90) followed by D.I. Khan (46.98) and Charsadda (44.02). Results indicate that per acre average seed quantity used was high in D.I. Khan (3267.37 Kg) followed by district Charsada (2471.86 Kg) and Mardan (1739.06 Kg). Other results predict that per acre average tractor hours were 23.92, 20.74 and 18.36 respectively in district D.I. Khan, Charsadda and Mardan while overall it arrives at 20.68. According to summarized results overall per acre gross revenue arrived at Rs. 122103.65. Among districts per acre gross revenue was highest in district Mardan (Rs. 1, 26,950.45/-) followed by district Charsada (Rs. 1, 22, 833.90/-) and D.I. Khan (Rs. 1, 13, 571.05/-). Net revenue was calculated by subtracting per acre total cost from gross revenue. Per acre net revenue from sugarcane production was found high in district Mardan (Rs.49, 179.45/-) followed by district Charsadda (Rs. 45,750.90/-) and D.I. Khan (Rs. 33,173.65/-). Overall per acre net revenue was found Rs.38, 630/-. According to result of stochastic production function and technical inefficiency model in overall data the derived production elasticity for seed was higher (0.138) compare to other explanatory variables i.e. labor (0.092), irrigation (0.085), urea (0.079), land (0.022), FYM (0.025), DAP (0.02) and pesticides (0.005). All inputs had positive and significant elasticities except DAP, FYM and pesticides that are positive but statistically non-significant. Primary reason for non-significance was low than recommended level of application. Growers specific socio-economic characteristics were included in the model to ascertain factors affecting technical efficiency of sugarcane production. The effect of grower’s age, farming experience and off-farm income had found significant and negatively related to technical inefficiency. Years of schooling was found positive and significantly correlated with technical inefficiency. While, the coefficient of family size, farm to home distance, extension contacts were negative but non-significant. Similarly tenure status was positive but non-significant. The gamma parameter arrived at 0.61, which illustrate that 61 variations in overall production were due to technical inefficiency. Stochastic frontier production function and technical inefficiency model for district Mardan show that all inputs had positive and significant elasticities except land variable, FYM and pesticides, which are positive but non-significant. The estimated production elasticity for seed was found high (0.133) followed by labor days (0.121), irrigation (0.091), DAP (0.057), urea (0.022), tractor hours (0.011), FYM (0.047), pesticides (0.020) and land (0.012) respectively. In inefficiency model growers specific to sugarcane experience and contacts with extension workers were found significant and negatively correlated with technical inefficiency. The other socio-economic variables (age, education, family size, off-farm income, farm to home distance and tenure status) have mix signs but non-significant. In district Mardan gamma parameter arrived at 0.59 which mean that 59% variability in sugarcane production among grower is due to technical inefficiency. Estimated production elasticities for all variables in district Charsadda were found positive and significant except DAP and pesticides which were found non-significant. Primary reason for non-significance was lower quantity of application. Derived production elasticity for irrigation variable was high (0.156) followed by labour days (0.121) and tractor hours (0.111). These variables were found important in term of its contribution toward sugarcane yield. In technical inefficiency model the effect of experience, education and extension contacts was found negative and statistically significant at 5 % level. The signs of coefficients of age, off-farm income and farm to home distance were found positive and significant, which show that with increase in grower age, off-farm income and farm to home distance technical inefficiency increase. Coefficient for family size was positive but non-significant. Results predict that 69 percent variation in sugarcane yield among growers is due to technical inefficiency. Derived production elasticity for seed was higher (0.171) in district D.I. Khan followed by labour days (0.132), land (0.13), irrigation (0.088), urea (0.075), pesticides (0.073), FYM (0.028) and DAP (0.014). However, production elasticities for land, DAP and FYM were found statistically non-significant at 5% level. Findings of the study showed that the effect of age and off-farm income was significant and negatively correlated with inefficiency. Mix signs were noted for the remaining variables, but its effect was non-significant except education with positive signs. The estimated gamma parameter for district D.I. Khan was noted 0.82 which means that 82% variation in sugarcane production was due to technical inefficiency. Empirical findings of stochastic frontier cost functions for combine as well separate district wise data show that sugarcane yield, labor days, seed, tractor hours, irrigation and urea are important constituents in total cost of production. While DAP, FYM and pesticides are positive but non-significant. In inefficiency model education and extension contacts were found significant factors that effect allocative inefficiency negatively in combine data. In district Mardan growers experience and off farm income show negative and significant correlation with allocative inefficiency. Family size, extension contacts along with tenure status were noted significant contributors to allocative efficiency in districts Charsadda and D.I. Khan. Mix and non-significant results were noted for other socio-economic variables. The estimated gamma parameters arrived at 0.62, 0.72, 0.79 and 0.84 for combine data and district Mardan, Charsadda and D.I. Khan respectively. Gamma value points out allocative inefficiency problem in study area. In study area mean technical efficiency varied from 0.53 to 0.98 with mean value of 0.70, which means that per acre sugarcane yield, could be increased with existing inputs level. The estimated technical efficiency score was found high in district Mardan (0.83) followed by district Charsadda (0.78) and D.I. Khan (0.63). In district Mardan majority of the farmers were found in the range of 0.80 to 0.90, while in Charsada and D.I. Khan most of respondents lies between 0.50-0.70 technical efficiency level. According to empirical results average allocative efficiency of sample respondents was noted 0.57 with range from minimum 0.20 to maximum 0.91. Mean allocative efficiency level was found high for district Charsadda (0.63) followed by district Mardan (0.60) and D.I. Khan (0.44). Empirical results showed that there is scope to reduce cost and increase productivity. The study shows that technical and allocative efficiency scores and factors influencing the sugarcane productivity are different among the districts. Mean economic efficiency of 041, 0.49, 0.40 and 0.28 noted for overall combine data and for district Mardan, Charsadda and D.I. Khan respectively showed that sugarcane growers are not efficient in production as well as in resource allocation. In study area none of the respondents has achieved above 60 % of economic efficiency level, therefore, for enhancing economic efficiency level both technical as well as allocative efficiency appears to be consider important." xml:lang="en_US
The Immensely Merciful to all, The Infinitely Compassionate to everyone.
49:01 a. O The Faithful! b. Do not put your opinions ahead of that of Allah and HIS Messenger. c. Rather, be mindful of Allah in awe, reverence, and piety, d. for Allah Listens to your sayings, and Knows everything of your intensions and behavior.
49:02 a. O The Faithful! b. Do not raise your voices above the voice of The Prophet Muhammad, c. and do not be loud to him in speaking like the loudness of some of you to others, lest your good deeds be wasted for a reward without your even realizing it.
49:03 a. Surely, those who lower their voices in the presence of Allah’s Messenger, those are the ones whose hearts Allah has chosen – after testing - for reverence and righteousness. b. For them is going to be Allah’s forgiveness and a great reward: Paradise.
49:04 a. Surely, those who call you aloud - O The Prophet - from outside your residential rooms, most of them do not have any sense of manners.
49:05 a. And it would indeed have been better for them if only they had waited patiently for you to come out to them and met them, b. Yet Allah is Ever-Forgiving to those who were unaware of these manners, Most Merciful to them too when they become aware of it.
49:06 a. O The Faithful! b. If a known troublemaker comes to you with some news/information, then investigate it and ascertain its truth before you share it with others and act...
The word pricing is one of the four Ps of Marketing Mix (Product, Price, Place and Promotion) and the most important and attractive one as it bears profit and income for producer and employee. Using various pricing strategies, a rate is fixed for a product or service in order to get suitable profit. If it is not taken care, the business or service may cause you loss financially. Like this term is used in production, it is also practiced in services in order to determine inflation rates and fixing daily wages and monthly salaries, for which various pricing strategies and arithmetic formulas are used. In this paper I have come up with introduction of Pricing in Modern and Islamic perspective and then limiting the topic to pricing in services, I discussed various Shariah issues of Pricing in services in the light of Quran and Sunnah.
Researchers have been contributing a lot to develop root …nding methods for solving nonlinear equations and system of nonlinear equations from many decades. The research started growing since the publication of the books by Traub in 1964 and by Ortega and Rheinboldt in 1970. Finding root of these equations have remained a very important problem in mechanical, electrical and aeronautical engineering. Some complicated techniques exist for solving cubic or quartic equations but higher nonlinear equations are rarely of a form that allows the roots to be determined exactly. So, numerical techniques must be used to solve complex nonlinear equations. Many numerical techniques have been developed earlier in literature to …nd the zero of a nonlinear equation to a speci…ed accuracy. These methods start with an initial approximation of the exact root and iteratively improve this approximation until the required accuracy is obtained. There are several contributors to this problem; Newton, Laguerre, Grae¤e, Baristow, Mueller, Traub and many others. The methods developed by all these researchers are single step. Among these techniques, Newton’s method [15, 104] is most popular method for …nding roots of the nonlinear equations. Newton’s method is quadratically convergent but it may not converge to real root if the initial guess does not lie in the vicinity of root or f 0 is zero in the neighborhood of the real root. Multipoint iterative methods allow us not to discard information that had already been computed. These methods require evaluations of the nonlinear function and derivatives of nonlinear function at several values of the independent variable [104]. The root …nding methods that use only information from the current iteration are called methods without-memory and the root …nding methods that use information from the current and previous iteration are termed as methods with-memory. Ostrowski [77] de…ned the e¢ ciency index of an iterative method as q 1 nf ; where q is the convergence order of the method and nf is the number of function evaluations required per iteration. Kung and Traub [56] conjectured that a without-memory multipoint method requiring n + 1 function evaluations per iteration have optimal order at most 2n and it can attain the e¢ ciency index at most 2 n n+1 : The methods satisfying above hypothesis of Kung and Traub are known as optimal. The main aim of this thesis is to investigate and develop some new optimal and computationally e¢ cient iterative schemes to …nd simple and multiple roots of nonlinear equations as well as for …nding roots of systems of nonlinear equations using various techniques. We have developed some novel multistep with and without-memory iterative methods for solving nonlinear equations by using the weight function approach, with-memorization, rational and inverse interpolation techniques. The basins of attractions and stability analysis of the methods have also been investigated for deep study. A large number of real world applications are reduced to solve systems of nonlinear equations numerically. Solution of such systems has been one of the most challenging problems in numerical analysis. Newton’s method is a basic method for this problem which is also extended for solving systems of nonlinear equations. Several iterative methods for solving systems of nonlinear equations are brought forward. One of the main advantages of these schemes was to achieve high order of convergence with few Jacobian and function evaluations. We have established in this thesis, a new family of optimal fourth order Jarratt type methods for solving nonlinear equations and have extended it to solve systems of nonlinear equations. Convergence analysis for both cases shows that the order of convergence of the new methods is at least four. Cost of computations, numerical tests and basins of attraction are presented which show that the new methods are better alternates to existing methods of similar kind. In addition stability analysis shows the stable behavior of new methods. We have also given applications of the proposed methods to well known Burger’s equation and global positioning system (GPS). In this thesis, we have developed two new classes of optimal eighth order without-memory methods for …nding simple roots of nonlinear equations using weight function approach and four parameters. These methods are extendable to with-memory scheme as well. We have also developed general classes of optimal derivative-free npoint iterative methods based on inverse and rational interpolations that satisfy Kung–Tarub’s Hypothesis [56]. The proposed schemes require n + 1 function evaluations to acquire the convergence order 2n and e¢ - ciency index 2 n n+1. Some dynamical aspects and basins of attraction are studied for the presented methods. Moreover, we have studied the stability analysis of the proposed methods by using the polynomial p(z) = z21. With-memory multi-step iterative methods that use information from the current and previous iterations, increase the convergence order and computational e¢ ciency of the multi-step iterative methods without-memory without any additional function evaluations. The increase in the order of convergence is based on one or more accelerator parameters which appear in the error equations of the without-memory methods. For this reason, several multi-step withand without-memory iterative methods have been developed in recent years. For a background study regarding the acceleration of convergence order via withmemorization, one may see e.g. [78,79]. In this work, we have presented two new e¢ cient with-memory iterative methods for simple roots of nonlinear equations based on newly developed optimal eighth order derivative-free without-memory methods involving four parameters. iiipoint iterative methods based on inverse and rational interpolations that satisfy Kung–Tarub’s Hypothesis [56]. The proposed schemes require n + 1 function evaluations to acquire the convergence order 2n and e¢ - ciency index 2 n n+1. Some dynamical aspects and basins of attraction are studied for the presented methods. Moreover, we have studied the stability analysis of the proposed methods by using the polynomial p(z) = z21. With-memory multi-step iterative methods that use information from the current and previous iterations, increase the convergence order and computational e¢ ciency of the multi-step iterative methods without-memory without any additional function evaluations. The increase in the order of convergence is based on one or more accelerator parameters which appear in the error equations of the without-memory methods. For this reason, several multi-step withand without-memory iterative methods have been developed in recent years. For a background study regarding the acceleration of convergence order via withmemorization, one may see e.g. [78,79]. In this work, we have presented two new e¢ cient with-memory iterative methods for simple roots of nonlinear equations based on newly developed optimal eighth order derivative-free without-memory methods involving four parameters. For this, we approximate the involved parameters with the help of Newton’s interpolating polynomials passing through best saved iterative points to construct highly e¢ cient with-memory methods. This is a novel idea since there are a few with-memory iterative methods in the literature involving four accelerators. The R-order of convergence [73] of the new with-memory methods raises from 8 to 15:5156 without additional function evaluations and e¢ ciency index is signi…cantly improved from 81=4 1:68179 to 15:515601=4 1:9847. We have also presented a general class of with-memory methods as an extension of newly developed derivative-free family of npoint without-memory optimal methods employing a self-accelerating parameter. At each iterative step, we use a suitable variation of the free parameter. The convergence order of the existing family is improved from 2n to 2n + 2n1 without additional function evaluations. An extensive comparison of our with-memory methods is done with the existing withand without-memory methods in terms of e¢ ciency index, residual error and computational order of convergence using some nonlinear equations. In this thesis, we have also established some new families of methods to …nd multiple roots of univariate nonlinear equations. Two families are of sixth order convergent methods and the other two are of optimal eighth order convergent methods. These families are based on modi…ed Newton’s method and weight function approach. An extensive convergence analysis is presented for each of the presented schemes with the help of symbolic computations on programming package Mathematica 8. In addition, we have also demonstrated the applicability of the presented schemes on some real-life problems and illustrated that the proposed methods are more e¢ cient among the available multiple root …nding techniques. The numerical tests of all the problems considered in this thesis have been carried out by using the programming package Maple 16 based on highprecision calculations on few initial estimations. Comparison of the performance of proposed and existing methods has also been carried out by drawing dynamical phase portraits of the stability behavior of the methods on the complex plane, that allows us to know how wide is the set of initial guesses that leads us to the required roots. Both of the comparisons give us complementary information that ivpoint without-memory optimal methods employing a self-accelerating parameter. At each iterative step, we use a suitable variation of the free parameter. The convergence order of the existing family is improved from 2n to 2n + 2n1 without additional function evaluations. An extensive comparison of our with-memory methods is done with the existing withand without-memory methods in terms of e¢ ciency index, residual error and computational order of convergence using some nonlinear equations. In this thesis, we have also established some new families of methods to …nd multiple roots of univariate nonlinear equations. Two families are of sixth order convergent methods and the other two are of optimal eighth order convergent methods. These families are based on modi…ed Newton’s method and weight function approach. An extensive convergence analysis is presented for each of the presented schemes with the help of symbolic computations on programming package Mathematica 8. In addition, we have also demonstrated the applicability of the presented schemes on some real-life problems and illustrated that the proposed methods are more e¢ cient among the available multiple root …nding techniques. The numerical tests of all the problems considered in this thesis have been carried out by using the programming package Maple 16 based on highprecision calculations on few initial estimations. Comparison of the performance of proposed and existing methods has also been carried out by drawing dynamical phase portraits of the stability behavior of the methods on the complex plane, that allows us to know how wide is the set of initial guesses that leads us to the required roots. Both of the comparisons give us complementary information that iv1 without additional function evaluations. An extensive comparison of our with-memory methods is done with the existing withand without-memory methods in terms of e¢ ciency index, residual error and computational order of convergence using some nonlinear equations. In this thesis, we have also established some new families of methods to …nd multiple roots of univariate nonlinear equations. Two families are of sixth order convergent methods and the other two are of optimal eighth order convergent methods. These families are based on modi…ed Newton’s method and weight function approach. An extensive convergence analysis is presented for each of the presented schemes with the help of symbolic computations on programming package Mathematica 8. In addition, we have also demonstrated the applicability of the presented schemes on some real-life problems and illustrated that the proposed methods are more e¢ cient among the available multiple root …nding techniques. The numerical tests of all the problems considered in this thesis have been carried out by using the programming package Maple 16 based on highprecision calculations on few initial estimations. Comparison of the performance of proposed and existing methods has also been carried out by drawing dynamical phase portraits of the stability behavior of the methods on the complex plane, that allows us to know how wide is the set of initial guesses that leads us to the required roots. Both of the comparisons give us complementary information that helps us to fully understand the numerical performance of the iterative schemes and to establish the conclusions." xml:lang="en_US