Linguistic Expressions of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) As a Miracle in Arabic Language: A Study of Linguistic Miracles of Prophet Muhammad

Arabian Peninsula was famous for its language expertise and linguistic expressions at the time of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). The poets and language experts would spend most of their lives to attain excellence in Arabic language and literature. It was during such time that a man named Muhammad (ﷺ) emerged, whose linguistic expression was remarkable, accurate and amazing. He was also quite familiar with the dialects and accents of every tribe of Arabia. It was the surprising effect of this linguistic excellence that people tagged him with different titles such as Poet, Sorcerer, Kāhin (soothsayer), Majnūn (One possessed by Jinn), and insane man with insane message. Allah Almighty revealed Qur’ānic verses not only to answer such allegations but also entrusted him to present commentary of the Holy Qur’ān to the people who would called him illiterate. This article will try to find out the Qur’ānic commentary on the linguistic expressions of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) as a miracle of revelation. The method of research is descriptive analytical and historical. The discussion of verses of Qur’ān and the explanations of the experts of Qur’ān through the comments of orientalists have been included to support the arguments. First Part of the paper discusses status of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) as an illiterate man with his remarkable linguistic expressions of Qur’ān due to which he was awarded different titles such as poet, sorcerer and insane. The second part explains the Qur’ānic response to accusations on Prophet (ﷺ) raised by the opponents. In the third part, some intellectual arguments of Qur’ān and opinions of orientalist have been discussed to support the Qur’ānic responses in favor of linguistic expressions of an “Ummi” Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) which is followed by findings and conclusion of the whole discussion.

Fortification of Compost Through Microbes and Inorganic Fertilizer in Cereal-Legume Intercropping Systems

Organic wastes are becoming severe threat to the environment. Organic wastes can be effectively utilized as a potential resource of nutrients through composting. Composts can be claimed as fortified compost after nutrient enrichment and blending with Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). This new technology can prove feasible in terms of lower application rates of compost (300-500 Kg ha-1 as compared to normal application of 1-2 tonnes ha-1) and can reduce upto 50 % of the recommended dose of inorganic fertilizers. Low organic matter is major limiting factor for agricultural productivity especially in semi arid and arid regions. Composted organic material can be applied on agricultural soils as an amendment to provide nutrients, to enhance their organic matter content and to improve the physio-chemical properties of soils. The presence of PGPR in rhizosphere significantly increase plant growth and yield under nitrogen limiting conditions. Cereal-legume intercropping have also been shown to increase productivity, improve soil fertility and control spread of pests, diseases and weeds. Intercropping reduces nitrate leaching from fields without loss of crop yields. Production of pulses is affected by many biotic and abiotic stresses, little use of bacterial inoculums which hamper the realization of actual yield potential. There is major decline in cultivated area of pulses in Pakistan due to displacement of traditional growing areas and low soil fertility. to address all these issues this study was carried out with the following objectives: (i) to assess the impact of fortified compost on soil fertility under cereal- legume intercropping (ii) to increase production of maize and pulses, especially mashbean through utilization of spring xxi season along with summer and (iii) to enhance farm profitability through enriched compost and appropriate cropping system. Two years field experiment for the proposed study was carried out at Farmers filed, Union Council Girja, Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan during 2010-2012 in both spring and summer seasons. Maize (Zea mays L.), mashbean (Vigna mungo L.) and mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) sole as well cereal-legume intercrop which were tested against the given fertility treatments. Sandy clay loam soil with 30 % clay, 50% sand, and 20 % silt was exist at experimental site. The field experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with strip plot arrangements keeping cropping system in main plot and fertility treatments in subplots replicated thrice. Maize variety “Agati 2002”, mashbean cultivar “Chakwal mash” and mungbean cultivar “Mung-06” was used in both years for both seasons. Spring crop was sown in mid of February and summer crop in mid July during both the years, using single row hand drill. Five cropping systems viz. sole maize, sole mungbean, sole mashbean, maize + mungbean intercropping and maize + mashbean intercropping and four fertility treatments; chemical fertilizer recommended (Maize NP@ 120:80 kg ha-1 & Legumes/Intercropping NP@ 40:60 kg ha-1), compost @ 1000 kg ha-1, compost@ 1000 kg ha-1 + ½ chemical fertilizer and compost @ 1000 kg ha-1 + PGPR + ½ chemical fertilizer were compared against control. In fortification process commercial compost was fortified (nutrient enrichment) with half recommended NP fertilizer @ 60:40 kg ha-1 and potential PGPR strains were tested under maize-mungbean/mashbean cropping systems. xxii On the basis of agronomic, competitive indices as well as economic performance of different cereal-legumes intercropping, it was well evident that Integrated Nutrient Management System, i.e., combination of organic, biological and chemical fertilizers {Compost @ 1000 kg ha-1 + PGPR + ½ Chemical fertilizer (60 & 40 kg ha-1 NP)} among fertility treatments performed best (better than full dose chemical fertilizer, PGPR and compost) in terms of net returns and soil fertility status improvement. As by above mentioned combination Rs. 274528 net returns ha-1 year-1 were recorded in maize + mashbean intercropping which was 40.43 % higher than the control and enhanced soil N and P. Among tested Cropping systems, cultivation of mashbean in the spring season proved to be successful like maize and mungbean, so cereal-legume intercrop proved to be beneficial in both summer and spring seasons. Maize + mashbean and maize + mungbean intercropping proved better than any of the sole crop in terms of total production and net returns for the area. Net returns (Rs. ha-1 Year-1) data also revealed that maximum net returns per year obtained from maize + mashbean intercropping. Combined application of compost @ 1000 kg ha-1 + PGPR + ½ chemical fertilizer attained highest net returns of Rs. 274528 ha-1 Year-1 (US $ 2745) (summer + spring). It was 40.43 % higher than the control under same cropping system. However maize + mashbean intercropping system yielded 37.97 % higher than sole maize and 68.67 % higher than sole mashbean. Under above mentioned fertility combination maize + mashbean intercropping attained 12.10 % higher net returns than maize + mungbean due to higher market price of mashbean as compared to mungbean.