The pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an indigenous minor fruit crop of Pakistan, having a long history of cultivation as wild plant in warm temperate Himalayan range of the country; however its production is quite low to meet ever increasing market demand. Sustainable production of high quality pomegranate fruit in the world has been achieved through morpho-genetic characterization and estimation of germplasm diversity which was missing in the country. Thus it is important to estimate morphological, biochemical and genetic diversity of wild and domesticated pomegranate accessions through analysis of separate and combined data of selected wild and domesticated pomegranate accessions to be able to conserve the elite germplasm. Various levels of qualitative and quantitative morphological diversity were recorded in fruits of selected 115 pomegranate accessions. The round shape fruits were dominant in most of the commercial and wild accessions of Rawalakot whereas red color fruits and arils were predominant in wild compared to domesticated accessions. The highest value of CV was estimated in seed hardness (302.91%) followed by yellow green fruit color (215.24%), round oblong fruits (210.33%), slightly bitter arils (209.49%), pink red arils 177.33%) and white pink arils (170.97%) in all selected pomegranate accessions. The red skin color in fruit had a strong correlation (r=0.809) with red arils followed by 0.769 and 0.741% for round fruit stalked end and medium seed hardness, respectively. There was a strong positive association (0.731) of red arils with sourness and a negative correlation (-0.145) with sweetness. The wild pomegranate accessions had high CV (29.07%), for fruit weight followed by 25.61, 24.73 and 20.45% for rind weight, rind thickness and seed weight, respectively, whereas, in domesticated accessions the highest CV of 41.99% was recorded in fruit weight. Fruit weight had a strong correlation (0.79%) with rind weight and a high positive correlation was recorded between wood portion index (WPI) and aril weight in a combined analysis of wild and domesticated accessions. All domesticated accessions had a close association among fruit weight, arils and seeds, whereas the wild accessions, there was a strong association for WPI. The Abbottabad and Rawalakot accessions were highly diverse and varied not only from each other but also from accessions from other regions, whereas accessions of Muzaffargarh and Rahim Yar Khan had high similarities as shown in cluster analysis of qualitative data of all accessions. Wild and domesticated accessions successfully clustered on the basis of similarities of morphological and biochemical traits irrespective to growing regions; however, most of Muzaffargarh, Rahim Yar Khan and Mustong accessions grouped in the same class. Moreover, wild and domesticated accessions grouped in separate classes for biochemical traits while a few Chakwal, Bahawalpur and D.G. Khan accessions clustered with wild accessions for most of the morphological traits. Most of the reported SSR primers (29) in this study were efficient and showed high polymorphism with polymorphic information contents (PIC) ranging from 0.187 to 0.5598 and maximum allele frequency of xviii 0.8579% in all selected wild and domesticated pomegranate accessions. The highest genetic similarity coefficient was 30.7 to 84.76%, 21.76 to 76.78% and 21.76 to 79.88% in wild, domesticated and both wild and domesticated pomegranate accessions, respectively. The domesticated accessions clustered on the basis of genetic similarity irrespective of growing regions while wild accessions sharing common alleles were grouped in the same class based on growing regions. Thus morphological traits showed high diversity in wild accessions compared to domesticated pomegranates whereas, biochemical traits showed high diversity in domesticated accessions. In molecular studies, the SSR primers could serve as potential markers for genetic diversity estimation in Pakistani pomegranates as they proved that the genetic base of our pomegranate germplasm is broad. Molecular diversity was higher in wild accessions compared to domesticated pomegranates. These studies provide basic information for pomegranate breeding programs to develop new cultivars to broader the harvest window of high quality pomegranate fruits in Pakistan.
انگریزی ذریعہ تعلیم ہماری ضرورت پاکستان ایک ترقی پذیر ملک ہے اس میں رہنے والے لوگ اتنے تعلیم یافتہ نہیں ہیں جتنے دیگر ممالک کے لوگ علم سے بہرہ ور ہیں۔ اس کی وجوہات اور بھی بہت سی ہیں ان میں ایک وجہ انگریزی سے عدم دلچسپی ہے۔ انگلش لینگوئج سیکھے بغیر ہم دیگر اقوام کے ہم پلہ ہونے کا دعوی نہیں کر سکتے۔ اس لیے کہ کسی قوم کے نشیب وفراز ، افراط وتفریط اور اس کے اسباب کا اندازہ لگانا ہو تو اس کی زبان پر گرفت انتہائی ضروری ہے۔ ازاں بعد ہی ہم اپنی خوبیوں اور خامیوں کا اس سے موازنہ کر سکتے ہیں اور ترقی کی راہ میں آنیوالی رکاوٹوں کا سد باب کر سکتے ہیں۔ دیگر اقوام کا مطالعہ ہی ان کی تاریخ سے آشناکرتا ہے اور پھر وہ اسباب جن کی بدولت اس اقوام پر تنزل اور ترقی کا دور گزرا اس سے آگاہی ہوتی ہے۔ آج کل ترقی یافتہ اقوام اسی زبان سے وابستہ ہیں۔ اس لیے اس کو ذریعہ تعلیم بنانا اس لحاظ سے ضروری ہے۔ انگریزی ایک بین الاقوامی زبان ہے اور متعددممالک میں بولی اور سمجھی جاتی ہے پھر اپنی اقتصادی اور معاشی ترقی کے لیے اس کی تفہیم کی اشد ضرورت ہے۔ ہماری نئی نسل اس زبان سے واقفیت کی بدولت ہی معیاری قسم کی ملازمتوں سے فائدہ اُٹھاسکتی ہیں۔ انگریزی سے واقفیت کی بنا پر ہم اپنے تعلیمی معیار کو بلند کر سکتے ہیں ، دیگر ممالک کی جامعات میں تعلیم حاصل کر سکتے ہیں۔ بلکہ تدریسی فرائض سرانجام دے سکتے ہیں۔ آج کل اکثرممالک اس زبان کی طرف خصوصی توجہ دے رہے ہیں۔ اور انہوں نے اپنے اپنے تعلیمی اداروں میں شروع سے ہی انگلش کوذریعہ تعلیم بنایا ہے۔ پاکستان میں بھی انگلش میڈیم سکول سسٹم کا اجرا ہو چکا ہے اور ہمارے ارباب...
The freedom of thought and expression has acquired a diversity of meanings and limitations determined by the evolving socio-historical contexts of various civilizations through the history. This piece of research briefly investigates the history of evolution of this concept in Islamic and Western intellectual circles and then intends to focus upon the elaboration of this idea by Imam Badi-uz-Zaman An-Naurasi. Iman Naurasi supports the human right of thinking and expressing ideas freely but at the same time recognizes the need of divine intervention in delimiting its boundaries. Humans, if left entirely unrestricted to make their choices in life, would only bring about disastrous results and thus lead to cessation of a collaborative social life. Therefore, Imam proposes that humanity should abide by some universal principles and high moral values inspired by the divine revelation so that the society could collectively ensure the pursuit of human progress and well-being. Imam proves his point through the instances from the Islamic history that divinely guided freedom of thought and expression provided the world with a vivid model of life which provided people the rights of choosing everything in their life ranging from faith to marital and economic decisions.
This thesis describes a comprehensive geochemical study on sediments (60) and crude oils (10) from Cretaceous Formations using TOC, Rock-Eval Pyrolysis, gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The samples were obtained from the Kohat and the Lower Indus Basins. Chapter 1 describes a brief introduction of terms and applications of Rock Eval and biomarker parameters in organic geochemistry. Geology of the study area, description of samples and details of experimental procedures and techniques has been described in chapters 2-3 respectively. In chapter 4, the source rock potential of Cretaceous Formations from four wells, namely C-1 from the Kohat Basin and Ks-1, Dd-1 and D-1 from the Lower Indus Bain, has been investigated using total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock Eval parameters. The sequences represented by Hangu, Lumshiwal and Chichali Formations from the Kohat Basin are organic rich sediments. Organic matter is mature and largely type-III gas prone kerogen, however, at the base of Lumshiwal, type-II/III OM capable of generating both oil and gas is present. In the Lower Indus Basin, the Parh Formation contains insignificant amount of thermally immature type-III/IV OM. The Upper Goru unit also lacks organic richness and thermal maturity necessary for hydrocarbon generation. However, in the well Dd-1, this unit probably contains mixed OM from type-II/III kerogen, which may have some potential for gas at appropriate maturity level. The members of Lower Goru Formation, (Badin shale, Upper shale, Middle sand, Lower shale and Talhar shale) in well Ks-1, display fair to good organic contents; while deeper sediments are more organic rich. The OM is thermally mature except Badin shale. Amongst the sample suit, Talhar and basal shale units in well Dd-1 and Lower Goru shales in well D-1 contains good amount of mixed OM. These formations show sufficiently high maturity and S 2 /S 3 to have generated both oil and gas. The samples of Sembar Formation are low in OM, mainly type-III OM at peak thermal maturity is present; suggesting end of hydrocarbon generation window. Low pyrolysis yields in these sediments could be due to thermal effects on OM. This study suggests that Sembar ivFormation is predominantly gas prone; while Lower Goru shales and Talhar shales may act as source rocks for both oil and gas in the area. In chapters 5 & 6, biomarker study has been undertaken on sediments, discussed under chapter 4, to predict the source, depositional environment, lithology and thermal maturity of OM. The samples from the Kohat Basin contain mixed OM predominantly terrestrial deposited in marine sediments. This has been indicated from low pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios, samples location on Pr/nC 17 vs. Ph/nC 18 and steranes ternary diagrams. The presence of oleanane indicates some angiosperm input to the source rocks. The low C 29 /C 30 17α(H)-hopane and low C 35 homohopane index (HHI), low abundance of C 19 -C 29 tricyclic terpanes (TT) compared to hopanes, high abundances of C 24 tetracyclic terpane (TeT) and C 23 TT, and low steranes/hopanes support non-marine OM in evaporate depositional settings. While extremely low values of C 30 D/C 30 17α(H)-hopanes and C 29 Dia/Regular steranes suggest marine sediments. The ratios, C 32 22S/(22S + 22R) homohopane, moretane/hopane, C 29 20S/(20S + 20R) and αββ/(αββ + ααα) steranes and carbon preference indices (CPI & OEP) indicate mature nature of OM for Hangu, Lumshiwal and Chichali Formations. In the Lower Indus Basin, the Parh and Upper Goru Formations demonstrate the presence of algal OM deposited under anoxic to sub-oxic conditions. The algal nature of OM has been manifested by high relative distribution of C 27 5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H) 20R (ααα- 20R) steranes on ternary plot. The samples are immature with respect to hopane and sterane isomerization ratios and hence not capable of generating hydrocarbons. The Lower Goru Formation including its members particularly Upper shale, Lower shale and Talhar shale has received mixed OM (predominantly terrestrial) deposited under oxic environment on the basis of Pr/Ph ratio, abundance of C 19 TT, C 20 TT and C 24 TeT relative to C 23 TT, relative distribution of C 29 /C 30 17α(H)-hopanes and C 29 /C 27 ααα-20R steranes. The OM in Lower Goru Formation samples is thermally mature on the basis of sterane and hopane isomerization ratios close to equilibrium values and CPI close to one with the exception of a few samples e.g. Dd-7, Ks-4 & Ks-6 and samples from well SMD-1. The Upper shale, Lower shale and Talhar shale samples from well SMD-1, show immature vdistribution of biomarkers maturity parameters on account of shallower depth (1410-2190 m) compared to same formations in well Ks-1 (2350-2962 m) which are more deeply buried and more mature. The Sembar Formation contains mixed OM, more terrigenous input at intervals (Dd-1), deposited under anoxic to sub-oxic conditions and exhibit C 32 22S/(22S + 22R) homohopane, moretane/hopane and sterane isomerization ratios typical of thermally mature OM. The study based on biomarker analysis reveals that OM in the Cretaceous sediments is of mixed origin, predominantly terrestrial and deposited in oxic to anoxic environment. The biomarker maturity parameters reveals that the Hangu, Lumshiwal and Chichali Formations in the Kohat Basin and the Lower Goru (including its members Upper shale, Lower shale and Talhar shale) and Sembar Formations in the Lower Indus Basin have reached maturity level equivalent to the main zone of hydrocarbons generation while Parh and Upper Goru Formations are immature and far from oil window. In chapter 7, geochemical analysis of the 10 crude oils from Cretaceous reservoirs of the Lower Indus Basin has been carried out using bulk properties and diagnostic biomarker parameters. Presence of full suite of n-alkanes, low isoprenoid/n-alkane ratios, elevated saturates/aromatics ratios, high API gravity and absence of unresolved complex mixture (UCM) are consistent with non-biodegraded nature of crude oils. Low sulfur content (<1 %) and high Pr/Ph ratio (2.14-5.27) suggest non-marine OM deposited in highly oxic depositional environments. Biomarker parameters like relative distribution of C 27 -, C 28 - and C 29 ααα-20R steranes, C 19 TT, C 23 TT, C 24 TeT, hopanes distribution, steranes/hopanes ratio, Pr/n-C 17 vs. Ph/n-C 18 plot and oleanane index suggest that the crude oils contain predominantly terrigenous OM. The crude oil samples are mature for CPI, C 32 22S/(22S + 22R) homohopanes, C 29 20S/(20S + 20R) and C 29 αββ/(αββ + ααα) sterane isomerization ratios. Based on a similar trend in data, the analyzed crude oils from the Lower Indus Basin are genetically related and could be classified into a single group. Geochemical correlation studies of crude oils and source rock sediments indicate that shales of the Lower Goru and Sembar Formations could be the probable source rocks for crude oils.