In the present dissertation, our research findings on the production of bioactive secondary metabolites by soil borne fungi are discussed. The application of microorganisms for the welfare of human beings is the main goal of biotechnology. In this study, two phytopathogenic fungi, Sclerotium rolfsii and Aspergillus flavus were isolated from soil samples collected from Malakand Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Growth parameters (nutrient media, temperature, pH, incubation period, and static/shaking intervals) were optimized for achieving maximum production of bioactive secondary metabolites. Five nutrient media were used for fungal growth. S. rolfsii produced maximum amounts of metabolites in Czapek yeast broth media (CYB), whereas maximum formation of metabolites by A. flavus was found in potato dextrose media (PDB). Furthermore, the crude secondary metabolites in ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and n-hexane extract obtained from each medium were screened for their activities against different pathogenic bacteria. The EtOAc and n-hexane fractions obtained from the CYB medium were more active against pathogenic bacteria as compared to the crude metabolites obtained from the other media in the case with S. rolfsii, whereas PDB was the media, in which A. flavus yielded the largest quantities of secondary metabolites, showed significant results against pathogenic bacteria. EtOAc and n-hexane fractions of both fungi were screened for their in vitro effects, including antifungal, phytotoxic, and insecticidal properties and brine shrimp lethality. The in vivo activities of the metabolites, such as acute toxicity, analgesic, and sedative action, were also studied. The results showed that the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction was more active as compared to the n-hexane fraction due to the presence of polar constituents. The results obtained from the examinations of the biological activities indicated that both fungi produced bioactive secondary metabolites which have antimicrobial, phytotoxic, insecticidal, cytotoxic, analgesic, and sedative effects. The EtOAc fraction of S. rolfsii and A. flavus was significantly more active against carbonic anhydrase with IC50 values of 45.40 ±0.75 and 59.89 xx ±1.65, respectively. Similarly, the n-hexane fraction of both fungi also showed significant results against carbonic anhydrase (62.5 and 63% at 0.2 mg/mL, respectively) with IC50 values (45.40 ±0.75 and 61.3 ±1.75, correspondingly). The EtOAc and n-hexane fraction of both fungi exerted insignificant influence against urease. In short, the isolated crude metabolites exhibited remarkable inhibition activity against carbonic anhydrase. The bioactive EtOAc fraction of both fungi were further subjected to column chromatography (cc), which yielded one new and five known compounds. Their purity was confirmed by thin-layer chromatography. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by using various modern spectroscopic analyses, including 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, HMBC, and EI-MS spectra. One new and four known secondary metabolites were isolated from S. rolfsii and one known compound was isolated from A. flavus. The bioactive compounds isolated from S. rolfsii were: cinnamic acid (1), chlorogenic acid (2), Screlotiumol (3), o-coumaric acid (4), and gallic acid (5), whereas kojic acid (6) was isolated from A. flavus. Two compounds were obtained in high quantity, chlorogenic acid (2) and screlotiumol (3), and assessed for their effects on the reversion of multidrug resistant (MDR) mediated by P-glycoprotein (P-gp). In cancer cell lines, the multidrug resistant P-glycoprotein is a target for chemotherapeutic drugs. Both tested compounds showed an excellent MDR reversing impact against the mouse T-lymphoma cell line in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, compounds (2 and 3) were subject to molecular docking. Optimal effects of molecular docking were obtained by compounds (2 and 3) as compared to the standard treatment. Therefore, the preliminary results obtained in the present investigation indicate that these compounds could be used in the selection of potential targets for the treatment of cancer.
The aim of this research is to thoroughly analyze the part multilingual dailies play in covering women issues in Pakistan. It is rooted from national newspapers, the Daily ‘Dawn’, the Daily ‘Jang’ and the Daily ‘Kawish’ in the year of 2011. The study explores to what extent of the violence against women and education issue of women is dealt by the sampled dailies. The study employed content analysis a quantitative research methodology during 1st January 2011 to 31st December 2011. The contents of the newspaper were measured in column per centimeter of the space of one year. For this research work three major dailies of three different languages, the Daily Dawn, the Daily Jang and the Daily Kawish were selected. In sum up, an elite class newspaper the Daily Dawn has published 562 very little issues of women and used 0.6 percent of the total capacity which is of 4353024 co./cm in the year of 2011. However, the Sindhi language newspaper, the Daily Kawish has used 2430 a little more issue of women and covered 2.3 percent of total capacity of 1678976 col./cm of this daily in 2011. To some extent, the Urdu language newspaper the Daily Jang has reported 1297 more number of women issues and used 1 percent of total capacity of 2423616 col./cm in one year. Hence, the result shows that Pakistani press gives a little bit space to issues of women rights. Although, the Daily Dawn and the Daily Kawish have reported more issues of violence against women but the Daily Jang (an Urdu language newspaper) has covered more education problems of women in its newspaper in the year of 2011.
This study attempted to assess the retention in basic skills of literacy of neo- literates. It also explored the problems of relapse into illiteracy of adult female neo- literates; the possible causes behind the problem of relapse; and, development of a strategy for prevention of relapse into illiteracy. The study looked at neo-literates about three years after they had completed their literacy courses. Two main organisations launching programmes of adult literacy for females in Punjab were considered. The sample of the study involved 1099 respondents that were chosen through multi steps sampling techniques from 9 districts of the Punjab. The research questions were formulated to give a focus for the study. A mixed method research design (concurrent nested design) was applied in order to achieve the objectives of the study. A test was conducted to determine the retention level of neo-literates in reading, writing and numeracy skills. The researcher developed a questionnaire for teachers and supervisors of adult literacy programmes, an interview schedule for neo-literates, an interview schedule for high officials and a list of themes for Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The views of teachers and supervisors were compared using a chi-square test of independence. The data of interview schedule of neo-literates were analyzed by categorizing, coding and were presented in tabular form with frequencies and percentages. The qualitative data of interview schedule of high official and FGDs were analyzed on the basis of individual statements. It was found that only 17% of neo-literate of National Commission for Human Development (NCHD) could perform better in reading skills, 13% in writing skills and 5% in numeracy skills of adult literacy program after two year of their study. In viiiDepartment of Literacy and Non-Formal Education Punjab (DLNEP) only 6.5% of neo-literate could perform better in reading, 7.5% in writing, and 5.8% in numeracy skills. The adult female neo-literates faced major problems in basic reading and even greater problems in writing and numeracy. Thus, problems included: reading and writing alphabets, combined words having three or more alphabets, sentences, signboards to locate places, applications and letters. Problems related to relapse in numeracy skills were: counting up to 100, solving sums of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, making home budget and teaching to students of classes 1 and 2. Thus, the teachers were inadequately trained and failed to observe the basic standards of courtesy and respect for the learners. The courses ran at inappropriate times, were too short and used inadequate accommodation. While not excessively difficult, the materials used were not related to the real needs of the learners who wished, in the main, for literacy skills in relation to income generating activities. There was a need for increased opportunities to practise the skills taught and follow up courses were required. It was suggested that literacy programmes may be designed as per demand and need of the learners, income generating component may be included and taught in an integrated way; post literacy programmes may be offered to consolidate and even strengthen the basic skills of literacy.