Introduction Clostridium perfringens presents persistent threat to the small animals in causing moderate to severe enterotoxemia. The pathogenicity of C. perfringens depends on the production of four major toxins. Therefore, typing of toxins elaborated by C. perfringens is essential. Specific toxin types are involved in causing particular enteric diseases in sheep and goats. Multiplex PCR has been introduced, which has the potential to detect the genes that code for these toxins. Also, the sensitivity and specificity of this method has been confirmed by amplification of specific target DNA under unique conditions. Therefore, the present project was designed to understand the molecular epidemiology of C. perfringens types isolated from sheep and goats. Objectives This study was carried out with following objectives: Ø To isolate, identify and characterize field strains of Clostridium perfringens isolated from sheep and goats in selected districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Ø To determine molecular epidemiology and heterogeneity of Clostridium species. Experimental Design It was an experimental study of two years duration, conducted at Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Isra University, Islamabad, Pakistan. vi Duration September 2013 to August 2015 Material & Methods Fecal samples were collected from healthy and diseased sheep and goats. Collected samples were cultured on cooked meat broth, blood agar and tryptose sulphite cycloserine agar. Biochemical characterization was carried out by using API 20A kits. Pure cultures of C. perfringens were used for DNA isolation by using spin column genomic DNA extraction kit. Isolated DNA was amplified by multiplex PCR with specific primers. Based on the length of the amplified fragments, bacterial strains were identified. The amplified DNA fragments were sequenced using Sanger dideoxy sequencing method. Alignment studies were carried out by using ClustalW, T-Coffee software. Results Results revealed that the major C. perfringens type among all healthy and diseased isolates was type A followed by type D. In addition to this, beta2 toxin was found in both healthy and diseased type A and D isolates. However the prevalence of beta2 toxin gene in diseased sheep and goat population was 64% as compared to 37% in healthy ones. The identified genes were found equally dispersed in both sheep and goat isolates. Nucleotide sequences of alpha, beta2 and epsilon gene revealed variations in the identified isolates. vii Conclusions It was concluded from this study that: Ø C. perfringens type A and D were prevalent in Punjab province of Pakistan while locally produced enterotoxemia vaccine did not include type A. Ø Nucleotide sequences of alpha, beta2 and epsilon gene revealed variations in the identified isolates which confirmed bacterial population heterogeneity. Ø Sequence analysis of the amplified cpb2 gene revealed two genetically different populations of the gene. Keywords Molecular epidemiology, C. perfringens, sheep, goats, multiplex PCR
In Islamic legislation Ijtihad plays an important role and has central position in the whole process. Demands of life change day by day thus it become necessary to take on the structural review of Islamic laws keeping in mind the spirit and discipline of Islamic. Ijtihad thus play as a perfect tool for legislation. Regarding fatawas the jurists followed the methodologies of companions, tabieen, and taba Tabaeen. In cases in which they did not find any legal opinion of their teachers related to a specific problem they themselves tried to find out the solution for that problem from the relevant Texts and formulate their own fatawa. In Pakistan the Judiciary that performs the task of interpretation for law-making, Majlis-e-Shura and various Ulama are exercising the job of Ifta. The Council of Islamic Ideology is the official legislative body of fatawa. Taqleed is also an acceptable mode of legislation whose proofs are evident from Quran and Sunnah. It has been used as a source of legislation in Pakistan as well. In constitution of Pakistan article 189 and 201 are related to Taqlid. Article 189 and 201 makes the decisions of Supreme Court binding on all courts and the High court judgments binding on all subordinate courts. Thus the legislative process in Islam employs the methods of Ijtihad, Ifta and Taqlid as a perfect tool of legislation.
There has been tremendous growth in microfinance institutions over the number of years. Microfinance
Institutions depends a lot on the repayment of loans for getting funds in the future. Unfortunately, the
characteristics or a factor of microfinance institution that affects the repayment performance and lead to
default is underexplored area of study.
The purpose of this study is to identify the impact of credit appraisal, client training and collection policy on
repayment performance of microfinance clients in Lahore. In this regard a total number of 310 borrowers was
observed as a sample from the microfinance population. To select the microfinance institution for data
collection the snowball sampling technique was used. Questionnaires were distributed among 310
microfinance clients. Multiple regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses.
The findings of the study proclaimed that credit appraisal, client training and collection policy was positively
associated with repayment performance of microfinance clients. In order to avoid the problems of repayment,
the relationship between the client and lender should be monitored through advisers or in meetings. Lender
could also give rewards to the clients who pay the payment on the decided time.