The Effect of Physical Activity on the Menstrual Cycle at Martial Art Putri at the University of Muhammadiyah Makassar

Menstruation is a factor that reflects a woman's functional potential which can be influenced by a number of variables including age, family history, socioeconomic status, education, physical activity, personality, exercise, weight, height, stress, infection, percentage of fat distribution and hormonal. Physical exercise or sports affect the menstrual cycle of the participants of  martial art Muhammadiyah. This study aims to determine the effect of physical activity on the menstrual cycle, namely female combatants in the martial art Muhammadiyah arts education. According to research conducted in a number of countries, including other developing countries, it is said that menstrual disorders are quite a problem faced by Hillard women and found that female students show more frequent problems with irregular menstruation.

Determinants of Women’S Empowerment in Punjab, Pakistan

The present research work was carried out to address the measurement issues of women’s empowerment, and to assess the predictive strength of individual, familial, and socio-cultural determinants of women’s empowerment in the economic, familial, socio-cultural, and psychological fields. The objectives of the research were achieved in three independent studies. Study 1 was the preliminary work to develop a valid and reliable Composite Women’s Empowerment Index (CWEI) and was designed to construct valid and reliable measures of psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment: the dimensions of CWEI. The measures of psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment were based on the exiting literature. The factorial validity of the measures of psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment was determined via exploratory factor analyses on a convenient sample of 202 women of age ranged between 21- 60 year (Meanage= 39.50, SD= 10.70), belonging to five major cities of Pakistan (Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, and Karachi). Data on all dimensions of women’s empowerment were individually subjected to exploratory factor analyses by using Varimax rotation method. Factor analyses were yielded by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Study 2 aimed : i) to individually confirm the factor structures of the measures of psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment that emerged in exploratory factor analyses, via confirmatory factor analyses and; ii) to validate the Composite Women’s Empowerment Index that comprised four dimensions: economic, familial, socio-cultural and psychological. Data of 500 women of age ranged between 21 and 60 year (Meanage= 38.50, SD= 9.40) were conveniently collected from five major cities of Pakistan (Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, and Karachi) on all dimensions of women’s empowerment. Women’s empowerment index as a latent variable with four dimensions (viz., psychological empowerment, economic empowerment, familial empowerment, and social empowerment) appeared as a good model fit with a Chi square value = 4.345 (d f= 2) P> .05, CFI =.99, TLI=.97, RMR = .03, and RMSEA = .034. The index showed reasonably high internal consistency. The final measures of psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment comprised 21, 5, 8, and 5 items, respectively. Study 3 was conducted to examine the role of individual, familial and socio-cultural factors in predicting women’s empowerment. A sample of 1000 ever married women of reproductive age (21-49) year (Meanage= 35.55, SD= 7.80) was conveniently selected from two purposively selected city districts of Punjab (Multan and Lahore), Pakistan. Data were xix collected through demographic data sheet and measures of independent variables: The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), Internal Locus of Control Scale (Reid and Ware, 1974), Berlin Social Support Scales (Schwarzer and Schulz, 2003), gender awareness perception, legal awareness, political awareness, husband’s support, role of media, use of mobile phone, role of religion, social network, and local level facilities). Composite Women’s Empowerment Index and its dimensions (psychological, economic, familial, and socio-cultural empowerment) were used as outcome variables. Reliability and validity of the measures of the study were determined before data collection. In order to test the hypotheses of the study Kendall’s tau test, Chi- square, t-test, Ordinary Least Squares (stepwise), and Ordered Logit regressions were used. Results of both the Ordinary Least Squares (Stepwise) and Ordered Logit regressions showed that collectively from all the models (viz., overall, economic, familial, socio-cultural, and psychological empowerment) twenty two variables appeared as significant determinants of women’s empowerment. Own age, own education, paid job, personal income, internal locus of control, gender awareness perception, legal awareness, self-esteem, and own property appeared as individual level determinants; family system, family head, husband’s support, conjugal age, age difference from husband, family expenditures, and number of brothers appeared as familial determinant and; use of mobile phone, role of media, observing veil, social network, dowry, and role of religion appeared as socio-cultural determinants of women’s empowerment. The results of Ordered Logit regression validated the results of Ordinary Least Squares. The outcomes of mediational analysis supported our second hypothesized model and it appeared that education had significant indirect impact on women’s empowerment via income and self-esteem. The results of t-test showed significant differences in empowerment levels of women living in Lahore, and Multan and empowerment levels of women who were engaged in paid jobs and those who were not in paid jobs. Results of ANOVA showed significant group differences on the women’s overall empowerment with reference to age and education. The findings of the present research work hold important implications for women, non-government organizations, and government. Policy recommendations to enhance women’s empowerment in Pakistan have been emphasized. Keywords: women’s empowerment, women’s economic empowerment, women’s familial empowerment, women’s socio-cultural empowerment, women’s psychological empowerment, Composite Women’s Empowerment Index, individual level determinants, familial level determinants, socio- cultural level determinants, JEL Classification Codes: J11, J12, J16, J24, K38, O15, Z13.