Air injection into light oil reservoirs is now a proven field technique, because of the unlimited availability and low access cost of the injectant. One of the key of a successful air injection project is the evaluation of the process by carrying out representative laboratory studies. In this research, experimental set up has been developed to understand air injection process for improving oil recovery for depleted light oil reservoirs and the parameters on the basis of different petrophysics and fluid sample properties. In order to provide reliable experimental data, pressure and temperature experiments (up to 11032 KPa and 600 °C), at non-Isothermal conditions ramp of 5 o C/ min., were performed with unconsolidated cores (sand pack) and reservoir oils, at representative conditions of the air injection process into light oil reservoirs. The effects of porous media type, gas flux, heat input, water saturation and total pressure on the rates of the in- situ oxidation reaction were measured. When air is injected, the oxygen contained in the air (mainly of 79 % N 2 and 21% O 2 ) reacts with the hydrocarbons in place, by oxidation reaction. The produced combustion gases consisting of CO 2 , CO, O 2 and N 2 depend on the temperature conditions and the nature of the crude oil. The generation of a high temperature oxidation zone is preferable for its higher oxygen uptake potential, it’s more efficient carbon oxides generation and the creation of an oil bank downstream of the thermal front, both of the latter factors contribute to the improvement of the recovery. In both cases, the important point to assess is the oxygen consumption to prevent oxygen arrival at the producers and to sustain the combustion front. This is one of the main objectives of the air injection experiments. By continuous analysis of the produced gases from the reactor, at linearly increased temperature rate, it was found that combustion of crude oil in porous media follows a complex series of reactions. These reactions can be divided into three sequences :( 1) low temperature oxidation, (2) fuel deposition, and (3) fuel combustion. A model is proposed to analyze and differentiate among these reactions. The method developed is reasonably fast and can be used to measure the oxidation and deposition of fuel for a given crude oil and porous medium.The major conclusions are: 1. 100 percent utilization of oxygen was observed. 2. Significant oil recovery was achieved about 85 percent of original oil in place (OOIP). 3. The generation of flue gases by oxidation process was very efficient in terms of carbon oxides with an average percentage of gas composition of 10 % CO 2 and 4 % of CO and balance unreacted oxygen. 4. The H/C ratio for the deposited fuel decreases when temperature increases. 5. Increasing the injection pressure of system decreases the m-ratio [(CO/ (CO+CO 2 )] Expressions were obtained for low temperature oxidation rate of oil, the fuel deposition rate and the burning rate of fuel as a function of fuel concentration The relative reaction rate of carbon oxidation was used. The activation energy of each reaction was different for most of the runs. A significant effect of the heat input on activation energy was observed, a lower heat input producing larger activation energy. The effect of total pressure up to 11032 KPa indicated kinetic control with 21 % Oxygen partial pressure. This research will contribute to the overall understanding of air injection process and enable to be made of the most appropriate technique for a given reservoir. Use of less expensive method in tertiary phase will encourage the producers for additional recovery in this area.
Kabupaten Pasaman Barat berada di Proponsi Sumatera Barat, ibu kota-nya adalah di Simpang Ampek. Potensi kawasan Simpang Ampek ini merupakan kawasan strategis sebagai pusat pemerintahan, pusat pertumbuhan ekonomi dan sosial budaya masyarakat Pasaman Barat, jika pertumbuhan semua sektor ini tidak berdasarkan Rencana Tata Bangunan dan Lingkungan yang sudah di rencanakan maka akan berdampak negatif di segala bidang. Di Kawasan Pemerintahan ini terdapat Peruntukan lahan Sebagai Ruang Terbuka Hijau berada pada zona II di kawasan Pemerintahan Pasaman Barat Padang Tujuh. Perencanaan Ruang Terbuka Hijau untuk publik seharusnya mengacu kepada kelestarian Lingkungan alam. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan konsep rancangan ekopark dan ekowisata untuk menunjang kelestarian alam. Metode yang digunakan adalah dengan metode deskriptif kualitatif yang menganalisa studi lapangan maupun literatur, dengan cara mengidentifikasikan masalah-masalah yang ada di lokasi penelitian atau site dan sekitar site sehingga mendapatkan hasil dari pemecahan masalah, untuk menemukan sebuah Konsep Rancangan Ekopark dan Ekowisata pada Peruntukan lahan Ruang Terbuka Hijau.
Marmots belong to Order Rodentia and Family Scuridae. Fourteen species of marmots are reported from northern hemisphere of the world, living in alpine meadows which have long, harsh winter season. Two species of marmots have been reported from Pakistan, Marmota caudata and Marmota himalayana. Marmots are prey species for carnivores of alpine region, a good nutrient recycler and primary consumer converting biomass to energy. Marmots are least studied animals in Pakistan and knowledge gap about its ecology exists all over its range in the country including Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJ&K). Present study was conducted from June 2011 to November 2013 in district Neelum of AJ&K, located at 34°. 28 to 34°.48 N and 73°. 44 to 74°. 58 E, covering an area of 3621 km2. Objectives of the study were to identify the species of Genus Marmota from district Neelum; to determine its distribution range in the study area, to collect demographic data of Marmota spp. along with its population density and to analyze diet composition and food availability of Marmota spp. in the study area. For data collection on distribution and population of marmots, 10 study Sites (Baboon, Bloar Kassi, Commu, Mianwich, Janwai, Lawat Patlian, Noori Nar, Seen Gull, Shakar Garh, Shounter) were selected in the study area, based on the information collected from Department of Wildlife and Fisheries AJ&K, local residents and nomads in the area. Animals were live captured using body snares to collect blood samples for DNA analysis, to gather morphometric data and to determine their over winter survival rate. Data about its distribution was collected through line transect surveys. Demographic data was collected from the animals 1 2 captured during two consecutive years i.e. 2011 and 2012. Data on animals captured during two consecutive years (2011 and 2012) were used to gain basic insights about overwinter survival and reproduction. To estimate density of marmots, we relied on distance sampling. Data were analyzed using program SPSS 16.0. ANOVA was used to compare the means of morphometric measurements. Student’s t test was used to analyze data and Duncan’s multiple range test (MRT) was used to analyze food preference of marmots. Dissimilarity coefficient was calculated to assess food preference of marmots. BatchPrimer3 V 1.0 was used to design the primers while Chromas lite, MEGA 5 and UGENE software were used to align and analyze the Sequences. Distance 6.0 software was used to analyze the data of distance sampling. Morphometric data and DNA sequencing results suggested that marmot species existing in district Neelum was a variant of golden marmot (Marmota caudata aurea). The patchy distribution of the species was recorded form alpine zone of district Neelum within the altitudinal range of 3120 m to 3884 m asl. A total of 551 animals were recorded from the study sites having population density of 0.102 ha-1 from Baboon, 0.472 ha-1 from Bloar Kassi, 0.319 ha-1 from Janwai, 0.328 ha-1from Lawat Patlian, 0.473 ha-1from Noori Nar, 0.152 ha-1 from Shakar Garh and 0.224 ha-1 from Shounter. Morphometric measurements of 50 adult golden marmots (male, n= 33 and female, n= 17) revealed total length of adult males ( =74.87; P=0.559) and females from 73.0–77.83 ( = 76.47 cm), showing non-significant difference (P = 0.536 = 74.87). Body mass ranged from 4.3 to 6.6 kg for both sexes and females ( = 5.67 kg) have no significant difference from males ( = 5.57 kg; P = 0.559). Distance between anus and genitalia for males 3 were significantly additional ( = 2.35 ± 0.62 more cm) than females ( = 1.15 ± 0.40 cm; P< 0.001) while the distance of anus and genitalia was non-significant between sub-adult males and females. Average body temperature of captured animals were significantly higher for males ( = 100.78°F) than females (99.47°F; P< 0.018). Over winter survival rate for marmot population before hibernation from Shounter (n = 26.66) and Noori Nar (n = 22.5) has non-significant change than post hibernation from Shounter (n = 24) and Noori Nar (n = 25). Average social group size of golden marmots was recorded as 2.8 animals. Immergence of marmots at Noori Nar was on 15th, 8th and 13th October during the years 2011, 2012 and 2013, respectively. At Shounter during years 2011-2013 emergence was 7th, 9th and 13th May while immergence for hibernation was 24th, 20th and 18th October, respectively. Hibernation period for the marmots was recorded as seven months on average. Diet composition analysis suggested that Golden marmot prefers some plants over the others for food. From Noori Nar, Ligularia sibirica (RD = 3.82), Sibbaldia cuneata (RD = 44.47) and Dactylis glomerata (RD = 2.89) were highly preferred plants based on Relative Density, while Ligularia sibirica (RF = 3.69), Sibbaldia cuneata (RF = 3.97), and Dactylis glomerata (RF = 3.15) were preferred plants on the base of Relative Frequency. Highest consumption of Primula calderiana (RF = 2.72) was recorded on the basis of RD, whereas Doronicum roylei (RF = 2.99) was the most preferred species on the basis of RF. Lowest preference was recorded for Dactylis glomerata (RF = 2.12) and Sisymbrium mollissimum (RF = 3.97) from Shounter. Findings of this study would help ecologists, field biologists and wildlife managers for the conservation of Marmot species in the region, supporting its role as food source for threatened Snow leopard and other carnivore species found there. A long term study to understand population trend, threats and impact of global warming on this species is suggested.