الفصل الثانی: الشعر الجديد في شبة القارۃ الهندية
أعطی(ألطاف حسين حالي) للشعر وبالخصوص للغزل الأردو الأسلوب الجدید، واستوعب النقاد من بعض التجارب والأقوال علی أن ’’ذلك شعر علی شکل نثر‘‘[1]، وحصلت اللغۃ الأردیۃ علی الأسلوب الجدید وبعض أنواع الشعر، وقد حصل الشعر الأردو علی الأسلوب المنفرد عند إقبال’’[2] فیہ التنوع والترفع أیضاً‘‘[3]۔
وظھرت بعض أنواع الشعر الجدید توضح وتعالج بعض مشاکل المجتمع في العصر الحاضر، ولکن شعراء العصر الحديث اھتموا بالمنظومات ومن أھمھم (فیض أحمد فيض)۔
وقبل قیام باکستان کان للشعر دور کبیر في البحث عن طرق جدیدۃ والمساعدۃ في تشجیع المسلمین ضد الإحتلال والظلم، ولکن بعد قيام الباکستان تراجع الشعراء وتوقفوا عن التشجیع۔ والشاعر الکبیر الدکتور محمد إقبال کان رجلاً سیاسياً وعالماً کبیراً وقد لُقبَ بشاعر الشرق وکان فیلسوفاً مشھوراً وحصل علی شھادۃ الدکتوراہ، وُلد في 9 نوفمبر في 1877م ولہ أعمال أدبیۃ وسیاسیۃ وإجتماعیۃ رائعۃ، ولہ أشعار في اللغۃ الأردیۃ والفارسیۃ وکان لہ خبرۃ في اللغۃ العربیۃ ولہ عدۃ تصانیف منھا : (i)بال جبریل (ii) جاوید نامہ (iii)أسرار خودي، وقدم نظریۃ الباکستان وطنًا مستقلاً للمسلمين في الهند، وحصل علی شهادة السنۃ العاشرة في 1893م ثم علی الثانویۃ العامۃ في 1895م، وبعدھا حصل علی شھادۃ البکلوریوس في 1898م وحصل علی الماجستیر في الفلسفۃ في 1899م ثم سافر إلی انجلترا في عام 1905م، وبعدھا سافر إلی ألمانیا والتحق بجامعۃ میونخ وحصل علی شھادۃ الدکتوراۃ في عام 1907م من جامعۃ میونخ وقدم رسالۃ الدکتوراہ تحت عنوان (ارتقاء ما بعد الطبیعیات) ولہ أشعار ممتازة ومعروفۃ ، مثال علی ذلك۔
اوروں کا ہے پیام اور، میرا پیام اور ہے
عشق کے درد مند کا طرز کلام اور ہے
شمخ سحر کہہ گئی، سوز ہے زندگی کا راز
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This study combines three orientations, namely existential thought about the meaning of ‘being’ and ‘existence, ’ phenomenological insights into ‘lived experience, ’ and anthropological endeavor at what it means to be human. It attempts to focus on the human conditions by directly engaging with human beings. Specifically guiding itself with the questions such as how young people engage in the meaning-making of their lived experiences in their life course’s ever-changing process. Taking its theoretical insights and inspiration from existential and phenomenological anthropology, by zooming in on lived experiences, the research was conducted using life story interviews to collect the narratives to gain understandings into the life-worlds as it is lived and made sense of by young people of Tando Ghulam Ali, a rural town of District Badin, Sindh. Based on the ethnographic data and observations, it is argued that the meaning-making of lived experiences was different among research participants with a strong presence of selfhood and self-consciousness temporally and affectively; the difference in orientation towards life is entangled with personal history as well. This research went beyond the horizons of culture and society to put existence, life, and being, which are silhouetted at meta-level, at the heart of anthropological focus. This research is an experimental research project in anthropology, which has attempted to step its foot into the human condition's terra incognita, which calls for anthropologists’ further exploration.
Fabrication and Characterization of II-VI Semiconductor Thin Films and the Study of Post Doping Effects II-VI semiconductors have great importance in solar cell applications due to their excellent optical and electrical properties. This thesis is mainly concerned with the study of II-VI semiconductor thin films with a particular interest in their potential application in solar cells. A coating system based on close spaced sublimation (CSS) has been developed and thin films of zinc telluride (ZnTe), Zn and Te enriched ZnTe, cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium zinc sulfide (CdZnS) were fabricated. CdS is transparent to electromagnetic radiations; in particular to the visible and infra-red regions and are highly resistive materials. This research work pertained to improve CdS thin films as window materials using close spaced sublimation technique. The optimization of deposition parameters including vacuum in the chamber, distance between source-substrate, source and substrate temperatures are all investigated. ZnTe has been used as a buffer layer between CdTe and the metal back contact in II-VI semiconductor solar cells due to its compatibility with p-type cadmium telluride (CdTe). The purpose of the buffer layer is to help CdTe form a good Ohmic contact with the metal back contact, however, ZnTe itself is highly resistive. The main goal is to reduce electrical resistivity of ZnTe for its use as buffer layer in the back contact. The resistivity of the ZnTe thin film is modified by doping with silver (Ag) and/or copper (Cu). The compositions of zinc (Zn) and tellurium (Te) in the enriched (Zn or Te) ZnTe thin film is also explored to lower the resistivity of ZnTe film, which has not been reported earlier using CSS technique. In all these processes, the structural, surface, electrical and optical properties are studied for strong correlation. Ion exchange process is adopted for Ag and Cu doping in as-deposited ZnTe thin films with subsequent annealing. CdS is a potential candidate for window layer due to its suitable and tunable energy band gap (2.42 eV). Effects of doping are investigated on the structural, electrical and optical properties of CdS thin films fabricated by the CSS technique. These properties of fabricated CdS thin films are found to be suitable for solar cell applications. To enhance band gap, CdS and Zn powder are mixed mechanically with different weight percentages to deposit thin films CZS fabricated by CSS technique that has not been documented earlier. The increased energy band gap for CZS is 2.57 eV, which has improved the window region.