مارک، ایڈورڈ ویسٹر
ایڈورڈ ویسٹر مارک کا انتقال
ایڈورڈ ویسٹر مارک نے جو ایک عرصہ تک لندن یونیورسٹی میں عمرانیات کا پروفیسر تھا، گزشتہ اکتوبر میں انتقال کیا، وہ ایک عمیق النظر فلسفی اور بین الاقوامی شہرت کا مالک تھا، اوائل زندگی میں اس کو خیال پیدا ہوا کہ اخلاقی خیالات اور مذہبی اعتقادات میں گہرا تعلق ہے، چنانچہ اس نقطہ نظر سے اس نے یورپ کے علاوہ دوسری قوموں کے روایات اور اعتقادات کا مطالعہ کرنا چاہا اور اس کے لئے مراکش کو منتخب کیا، اور وہاں جاکر چار سال تک مقیم رہا، یہاں اس نے نہ صرف انسانیاتی معلومات جمع کئے، بلکہ وہاں کے لوگوں طرز زندگی و غور و فکر سے بھی واقفیت حاصل کرکے ان کے رسم و رواج کو آسانی سے سمجھا جو تمدن کے مختلف دور میں پیدا ہوتے رہے، یہاں کی تحقیقات اس نے اپنی مشہور کتاب ’’اخلاقی تخیلات کی ابتدا اور نشوونما‘‘ (The origin and development of moral ideas) میں قلمبند کی جو دو جلدوں میں ۱۹۰۶ء اور ۱۹۰۸ء میں شائع ہوئی تھی، یہ کتاب بہت اہم اور بلند پایہ سمجھی جاتی ہے اور اخلاقیات پر ایک فلسفیانہ مقالہ یا اخلاقی خیالات کی تاریخ کہی جاسکتی ہے، اس کتاب کی خوبی یہ ہے کہ اس میں تحلیلی اور تاریخی تجزیوں میں امتزاج پیدا کرکے یہ دکھایا گیا ہے کہ اخلاقی پسندیدگی اور ناپسندیدگی کی ابتدا معاشرتی تکدر اور تشکر سے ہوتی ہے، ڈاکٹر ویسٹر مارک کی اور دوسری تصنیفات یہ ہیں، مراکش میں انسانی شادی، رسم اور اعتقاد کی تاریخ، (۲)اخلاقی اضافیت، (۳)عیسائی مذہب اور اخلاق۔
(’’ص ۔ ع‘‘، دسمبر ۱۹۳۹ء)
Paper currency has remained controversial since its advent, until the majority of the modern scholars agreed that paper currency is just like gold and silver, and all the rules and provisions regarding the/of homogeneous and heterogeneous exchange of gold and silver are applicable to paper currency. This viewpoint is widely adopted by prominent modern-day international academies of Islamic Jurisprudence and the same has been preferred by the majority of contemporary scholars in their books, dissertations and scholarly articles. On the contrary, there is a different opinion of majority of the scholars in Indian sub-continent. The reason behind this was that the viewpoint of Ḥanafi school of thought about legal effective cause (᾽illat) of Ribā i.e. Weight is not found in paper currency, so the rules of Ṣarf (Exchange of gold and silver) are inapplicable. So, they opined that paper currency is like Fulūs (metal coins). Furthermore, to stop all the possible ways resulting to/in Ribā according to this opinion, they preferred the viewpoint of Imam Muhammad (R.A) regarding the metal coins and set some precautionary measures. However, the said standpoint has not been deliberated and contested in the contemporary jurisprudential research work as it deserved. This research aims to evaluate this viewpoint in detail, clarifying its roots and evidences while revealing its implications and comparing it with the view adopted by the majority of the contemporary scholars.
Mendelian disorders are caused by alterations in single gene with minimal influence from environment. The large effect size of these variants has always provided important insights into functional annotation of the genome. This knowledge is also instrumental for making important reproductive decisions and therapeutic intervention. Mendelian disorders are globally rare but are observed three folds more frequently in inbred/consanguineous populations. Pakistani population with high rates of consanguinity (>76%) coupled with large family size offers a rich resource for genetic studies of inherited disorders. In this study, eleven families segregating three different diseases Microcephaly, Epilepsy and Ciliopathies analysed using cutting edge technologies. Autosomal recessive primary microcephaly is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by congenital reduction in head circumference by >3SD from age and gender appropriate mean. Its incidence varies widely from one in million to one in 10,000; the latter pertaining to northern Pakistani population. To date, seventeen different causative genes have been reported. In this study, genetic analysis of seven families revealed one known and two novel mutations in already reported MCPH genes. Epilepsy is a heterogeneous group of neurological disorders characterized by chronic disposition to recurrent unprovoked seizures. A seizure, by definition, is an episode of abnormal, hypersynchronous activity in a neuronal population of brain that causes sudden involuntary change in behaviour, sensory perception and/or motor activity. Herein, two families were investigated through gene panel sequencing to reveal a reported and a novel mutation underlying epileptic seizures. The third category, ciliopathies, is a group of disorders caused by dysregulation of cilia related functions. Cilia are microtubule based cylindrical projections present on nearly all types of eukaryotic cells and mediate signal transduction of crucial developmental pathways. This study investigated two families, one with clinical diagnosis of a ciliopathy (Joubert Syndrome), while another family, initially undiagnosed, was successfully diagnosed as Nephronophthisis employing advanced genetic analysis. The findings of this study not only expand the mutation spectra, but through detailed clinical characterisation, highlight the diversity of its phenotype too. The knowledge will provide better insights in to disease mechanism and facilitate development of preventive and therapeutic interventions.