جدید اور ہم عصر ریاستوں كے مقابلے میں خلافت راشدہ كی انفرادیت

During the Dark middle ages of Europe, The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) established the first ever Islamic state, in the Arab soil, at Medinah. The successors of the Prophet, known as Khulfa-i- Rashideen (the Glorious Caliphs) not only maintained it rather they extended with further development. The Caliphate was not only a model statefor the world but also a unique one with respect to its political appratus, principles and the governance. This paper discovers the same uniqueness of the Caliphate in past and modern perspective.

Thinking and Speaking: An Integrated Process?

There is an arbitrary relationship between language and thought. This relationship is affected by social, psychological and physical factors. The words spoken do not always carry literal meanings. In order to understand an utterance, it is necessary to know the context and the aim of the speaker. Language is a medium not only of communication but of thinking also. Speaking and thinking are two interdependent and coinciding processes. The use of language in thinking is a free process whereas the language of speaking is controlled by many social, cultural, emotional, psychological and physiological factors. The two uses of language that is to say during the process of thinking and that of speaking take place at the same time and both affect each other. Individual differences in mental capabilities result in varying degrees of utilization and at times manipulation of this interdependence of thinking and speaking. Some times social and cultural norms prevailing in a society dictate reshaping of the relationship between words and associated ideas resulting in phenomena such as euphemism and pseudo invitations. Along with many other factors the deteriorated mental condition (faculty of thinking) of an individual can adversely influence the process of externalization of ideas present in mind (speaking). Diseases such as autism and schizophrenia evaporate the social impediments of blunt expression of ideas and thus result in exposition of actual feelings and emotions by means of words.