An Analysis of Global Integration and Economic Growth Nexus: Evidence from Pakistan

The following research examines economic growth potential from the perspective of globalization for Pakistan. The empirical results are estimated using the ARDL model over the period 1970 to 2018. The study reports the time before and after the openness to the world. The country opened up its borders quite late in the 80s. The results demonstrate that, in the short term, globalization negatively affects economic growth, but that, in the long run, it boosts economic growth. Globalization has assisted Pakistan's economic progress since the country opened its borders and economy to the rest of the world, but not to too much extent, what it could. Furthermore, research findings demonstrate that government spending and physical capital improve economic growth, however, inflation has a detrimental impact on Pakistan's economic growth.

Changes in Follicular Dynamics and Hormone Secretions During Oestrous Cycle and Timing of Artificial Insemination in Beetal Goats

Background and Objectives: There is no information available about the physiology of estrous cycle in native goat breeds of Pakistan; hence, modern breeding practices such as artificial insemination (AI) and estrous synchronization are not practiced by goat enterprises. Among several goat breeds, Beetal is popular for its dairy and meat characteristics. About 10% of the total goat population of Pakistan (74.1 million heads) is comprised of Beetal goats. Therefore, the objectives of the study were: 1) To understand the follicular dynamics and changes in plasma estradiol-17β and progesterone concentrations in Beetal goats during the estrous cycle (First experiment). 2) To determine the factors associated with variable interval to estrus and ovulation between early vs. late ovulating goats by monitoring the follicular dynamics and changes in estradiol-17β, progesterone and LH profiles following estrous synchronization by PGF2α (Second experiment). 3) To determine the optimal time of AI and changes in vaginal mucous characteristics relative to the onset of standing estrus in goats (Third experiment). Methodology: In the first experiment, two consecutive estrous cycles were monitored in Beetal goats (n = 7) via transrectal ultrasonography after estrous synchronization using a single dose of PGF2α (0.075 mg, i.m., d+ cloprostenol, Dalmazin®, Fatro, Italy) during the breeding season (Sep-Nov 2016). In second experiment, ovulation time of Beetal goats (n = 38) was determined using transrectal ultrasonography at every 6 h interval after the administration of single dose of PGF2α (Experiment 2a). The variations in hours to ovulation were further investigated in another subset of goats (n = 13) after the administration of single dose of PGF2α given randomly during the luteal phase (Experiment 2b). In the third experiment, intracervical inseminations were performed at 0 (n = 28), 12 (n = 84), 24 (n = 101) and 36 h (n = 44) after the onset of estrus in Beetal goats (n = 257) during the breeding seasons (September to December, 2016 through 2018). Characteristics of vaginal mucus (i.e., color, consistency, and volume) were observed at the time of AI and subjectively graded to calculate cumulative mucous score. The vaginal electrical resistance (VER) was recorded at each time point using Draminski® estrous detector. Results: In the first experiment, the interovulatory interval of Beetal goats averaged 21.2 ± 0.3 d, and the duration of follicular and luteal phases were 3.9 ± 0.1 and 17.2 ± 0.3 days, respectively. The 4-wave follicular pattern was greater than 3-waves (71% vs. 29%; P > 0.05). In 3-wave cycles, follicular waves emerged on Days -0.3 ± 0.3, 8.3 ± 1 and 14.5 ± 0.5 of estrous cycle (Day 0 = ovulation), while in 4-wave cycles, waves emerged on Days 0.5 ± 0.2, 7.5 ± 0.5, 11.9 ± 0.4, and 16.1 ± 0.6. Maximum diameter of preovulatory follicle and corpus luteum was 7.2 ± 0.2 mm and 11.8 ± 0.3 mm, respectively. On an average 1.7 ± 0.2 follicles ovulated per cycle, and luteolysis began on Day 17.2 ± 0.3 of the cycle. The largest follicle of first and ovulatory waves had greater diameters compared with 2nd or 3rd wave (P < 0.05). The peak plasma estradiol-17β concentration was observed 33.6 ± 9.6 h before ovulation. The peak plasma progesterone concentration was attained by Day 12.2 ± 1, and reached < 2 ng/mL within 1.6 ± 0.3 d after the onset of luteolysis. The plasma progesterone concentration and diameter of corpora lutea correlated throughout the estrous cycle (r = 0.94; P < 0.05). In the experiment-2a, the ovulation time varied between 60 and 96 h, and 57% of ovulations occurred by 72 h after PGF2α. Based on the time of ovulation, the goats in experiment-2b (n = 13) were retrospectively divided either into early (≤ 72 h) and late ovulating (≥ 84 h). The onset of estrus, peak estradiol‐17β concentration and LH surge after PGF2α was first observed in early than late ovulating goats (P < 0.05). The goats ovulating early had larger follicle and smaller CL in diameter at the time of PGF2α administration than those ovulating late (5.4 ± 0.2 vs. 4.3 ± 0.2 mm and 10 ± 0.6 vs. 11.8 ± 0.3 mm, respectively; P < 0.05). Likewise, plasma progesterone concentration tended to be lower (P = 0.087) in early than late ovulating goats. In the third experiment, pregnancy rate was minimum (P < 0.05) at 0 h (28.6%) compared with 12 (58.3%) and 24 h (56.4%); however, the pregnancy rate at 36 h (54.5%) did not differ (P > 0.05) compared with 0, 12 or 24 h. Relative odds for pregnancy rate at 12, 24 and 36 h were 5.24, 5.20 and 3.29 times greater than those of 0 h. The cumulative mucous score varied (P < 0.05) relative to the onset of estrus, and correlated well (P < 0.05) with the color and consistency than mucous volume. The VER was minimum (P < 0.05) at 12 than 0 and 36 h. Conclusions: In conclusions, the seventy-one percent of the cycles in Beetal goats are of 4-wave in nature and overall Beetal goats has a tendency of twin ovulations (first experiment). The size of the dominant follicle and CL at the time of PGF2α determines the interval to ovulation after administrating a single dose of PGF2α during the luteal phase (second experiment). The optimum time to inseminate the does using refrigerated semen is 12 to 24 h after the onset of estrus, whereas cumulative mucous score and VER can be used to determine the stage of estrus (third experiment).