Higher Education for Women in Peshawar: Barriers and Issues

Higher education for women is one of the major issues in Pakistan especially in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Most of the girls quit their education at higher secondary or intermediate level, which is a negative sign both for productivity and financial system of our society. Higher education not only increases critical and rational thinking, general knowledge, ways of living, financial status of a family but also common sense. The need of higher education is more for women as they are responsible for the bringing-up of a family; unfortunately, the ratio of the higher education among women in Peshawar is decreasing, which is the point of discussion in this study. This research made an attempt to consider the possible reasons behind the issues related to the women’s higher education in Peshawar. Data was collected through Questionnaire and further analyzed by employing ANOVA. The results revealed that there are different social and cultural issues due to which higher education of women in Peshawar is not promoted; however, the increase in the enrolment of the female students has witnessed an increase. Government may make extra efforts to promote the education of women as it directly affects families in particular and societies in general.

Identification, Population and Food Habits of Marmots in District Neelum, Azad Jammu and Kashmir

Marmots belong to Order Rodentia and Family Scuridae. Fourteen species of marmots are reported from northern hemisphere of the world, living in alpine meadows which have long, harsh winter season. Two species of marmots have been reported from Pakistan, Marmota caudata and Marmota himalayana. Marmots are prey species for carnivores of alpine region, a good nutrient recycler and primary consumer converting biomass to energy. Marmots are least studied animals in Pakistan and knowledge gap about its ecology exists all over its range in the country including Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJ&K). Present study was conducted from June 2011 to November 2013 in district Neelum of AJ&K, located at 34°. 28 to 34°.48 N and 73°. 44 to 74°. 58 E, covering an area of 3621 km2. Objectives of the study were to identify the species of Genus Marmota from district Neelum; to determine its distribution range in the study area, to collect demographic data of Marmota spp. along with its population density and to analyze diet composition and food availability of Marmota spp. in the study area. For data collection on distribution and population of marmots, 10 study Sites (Baboon, Bloar Kassi, Commu, Mianwich, Janwai, Lawat Patlian, Noori Nar, Seen Gull, Shakar Garh, Shounter) were selected in the study area, based on the information collected from Department of Wildlife and Fisheries AJ&K, local residents and nomads in the area. Animals were live captured using body snares to collect blood samples for DNA analysis, to gather morphometric data and to determine their over winter survival rate. Data about its distribution was collected through line transect surveys. Demographic data was collected from the animals 1 2 captured during two consecutive years i.e. 2011 and 2012. Data on animals captured during two consecutive years (2011 and 2012) were used to gain basic insights about overwinter survival and reproduction. To estimate density of marmots, we relied on distance sampling. Data were analyzed using program SPSS 16.0. ANOVA was used to compare the means of morphometric measurements. Student’s t test was used to analyze data and Duncan’s multiple range test (MRT) was used to analyze food preference of marmots. Dissimilarity coefficient was calculated to assess food preference of marmots. BatchPrimer3 V 1.0 was used to design the primers while Chromas lite, MEGA 5 and UGENE software were used to align and analyze the Sequences. Distance 6.0 software was used to analyze the data of distance sampling. Morphometric data and DNA sequencing results suggested that marmot species existing in district Neelum was a variant of golden marmot (Marmota caudata aurea). The patchy distribution of the species was recorded form alpine zone of district Neelum within the altitudinal range of 3120 m to 3884 m asl. A total of 551 animals were recorded from the study sites having population density of 0.102 ha-1 from Baboon, 0.472 ha-1 from Bloar Kassi, 0.319 ha-1 from Janwai, 0.328 ha-1from Lawat Patlian, 0.473 ha-1from Noori Nar, 0.152 ha-1 from Shakar Garh and 0.224 ha-1 from Shounter. Morphometric measurements of 50 adult golden marmots (male, n= 33 and female, n= 17) revealed total length of adult males ( =74.87; P=0.559) and females from 73.0–77.83 ( = 76.47 cm), showing non-significant difference (P = 0.536 = 74.87). Body mass ranged from 4.3 to 6.6 kg for both sexes and females ( = 5.67 kg) have no significant difference from males ( = 5.57 kg; P = 0.559). Distance between anus and genitalia for males 3 were significantly additional ( = 2.35 ± 0.62 more cm) than females ( = 1.15 ± 0.40 cm; P< 0.001) while the distance of anus and genitalia was non-significant between sub-adult males and females. Average body temperature of captured animals were significantly higher for males ( = 100.78°F) than females (99.47°F; P< 0.018). Over winter survival rate for marmot population before hibernation from Shounter (n = 26.66) and Noori Nar (n = 22.5) has non-significant change than post hibernation from Shounter (n = 24) and Noori Nar (n = 25). Average social group size of golden marmots was recorded as 2.8 animals. Immergence of marmots at Noori Nar was on 15th, 8th and 13th October during the years 2011, 2012 and 2013, respectively. At Shounter during years 2011-2013 emergence was 7th, 9th and 13th May while immergence for hibernation was 24th, 20th and 18th October, respectively. Hibernation period for the marmots was recorded as seven months on average. Diet composition analysis suggested that Golden marmot prefers some plants over the others for food. From Noori Nar, Ligularia sibirica (RD = 3.82), Sibbaldia cuneata (RD = 44.47) and Dactylis glomerata (RD = 2.89) were highly preferred plants based on Relative Density, while Ligularia sibirica (RF = 3.69), Sibbaldia cuneata (RF = 3.97), and Dactylis glomerata (RF = 3.15) were preferred plants on the base of Relative Frequency. Highest consumption of Primula calderiana (RF = 2.72) was recorded on the basis of RD, whereas Doronicum roylei (RF = 2.99) was the most preferred species on the basis of RF. Lowest preference was recorded for Dactylis glomerata (RF = 2.12) and Sisymbrium mollissimum (RF = 3.97) from Shounter. Findings of this study would help ecologists, field biologists and wildlife managers for the conservation of Marmot species in the region, supporting its role as food source for threatened Snow leopard and other carnivore species found there. A long term study to understand population trend, threats and impact of global warming on this species is suggested.