قانون اسلامی میں تعزیر کے جواز اور اس کے طرق تنفیذ کا تحقیقی جائزہ

This article investigates the notion of ta’z┘r (discretionary punishments in Islamic law) by comparing and contrasting it with the concept of hadd (fixed punishments in Islamic law). Deterrence of crimes is the main objective of any legal system in the world and different punishments are prescribed for this very purpose by all legal systems. Hence, this article explains the meaning and definition of ta’z┘r first, followed by the basis of its permissibility in the Quran and Sunnah, its types and modes of implementation etc. The article also elaborates the extent of ta’z┘r in different cases and crimes. The permissibility of pardoning in ta’z┘r as against hadd is also explained while the article concludes with presenting the main findings of the study.

Cultural Drivers of Plant Biodiversity of District Tor Ghar

Interactions between people and plant diversity are indispensable. Ethnobiology explores such interactions in a scientific way to unearth the reality that cultureand plant diversity of a region influences each other in a reciprocal manner. Relations between plants and people are much stronger in remote cultural societies. District Tor Ghar is one of such remote and rugged mountainous region of the western Himalayas that has historically established tribal cultural values, traditions and customs. There is no evidence of previous qualitative or quantitative ethnobotanical research that tells something about culture of the region. Present PhD project was initiated by selecting a total of 43 villages from 5 tribal belts (Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai, Hasanzai and Madakhel) using random table number method. 732 informants of all age groups were interviewed via semi-structured questionnaire method during the years 2012 and 2013. Group discussions, Ethnobotanical Participatory Appraisal (EPA) and extensive field visits were also arranged. Quantitative ethnobotanical techniques i.e., Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), Cultural Importance Index (CI), mean Cultural Importance Index (mCI) and Cultural Importance of Families (CIF) were used to report cultural diversity among 5 tribes of the region. The conservation stata of all culturally significant plant species were also assessed quantitatively by developing first time a special mathematical relation i.e., CS =K (OC+AV+CE)/TF x RPwhich was in harmony with IUCN criteria. Cluster Analysis (CA), Two Ways Cluster Analysis (TWCA) and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) were appliedtodraw and understand cultural gradient of the ethno-ecologically important species of the region using robust software packages PCORD version 5& CANACO version 4.5.Our findings show that 295 species of vascular plants providing 33 cultural services in the form of food, medicine, fodder, timber wood, fuel, cosmetics, aesthetic, spiritual and veterinary etc.Assessment of conservation status via newly developed formula confirmed 20 species as critically endangered, 35 as endangered, 56 as vulnerable, 58 near threatened (rare) and 126 least concerned(Secure). The use of multivariate statistics brought forward a pattern in large multivariate data sets to a presentable and structurally recognizable form. Findings based on CA, TWCA and DCA showed a cultural gradient among the various tribes of the region. There is a significant correlation on the plant use pattern and conservation management of Basikhel to Nusratkhel and Akazai to Hasanzai while a significant diversity of such patterns exist between Madakhel and the remaining tribes.The current study contributes to an enhanced understanding of ecosystem services in the Tor Ghar, cultural uses of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts and the role of indigenous culture in regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.