Kipling’s Depiction of the Great Game Between British India and Czarist Russia

This article provides valuable information about the living conditions of Muslims of the Pak-Afghan Region in the context of revisiting Rudyard Kipling’s view of the Great Game of the 19th century between Great Britain and Russia that roughly continued for about a century beginning in the second decade of the 19th century to the signing of the Anglo Russian convention in 1907. In this respect his famous novel, Kim (1901) has been critically examined to establish the political content of his creative work. Coupled with the appreciation of the novel as a great work of art with its many facets and themes, views of Edward Said have been juxtaposed to arrive at a conclusion that the novel is also a celebration of imperialism. In today’s scenario in Central Asia particularly Afghanistan, a revisit of Kipling is an interesting revelation. The discussion also reveals the similarities of the tussle of two centuries back to the realities in the region today. This insight as we appreciate Kipling’s masterpiece novel proves even more eye-catching and real. This paper also examines Peter Hopkirk’s works on the Great Game to historically asses the dialectics of the imperial struggle between the two super powers of the time. In this connection, a brief discussion is available on the three Anglo-Afghan Wars as well as the conflict in Kashgharia. This article presents an overview of the view head by Russians on the conflict which they call Tournament of Shadows or Bolshya Igra involving spies and military personnel. A fresh look at Kipling’s works in general and his novel Kim, in particular, helps explore the very essentials of the working of Imperialism and empire-building, which is the main stay of this paper. A deeper look would understandably unfurl big powers rivalry in general, and the present day security situation in Asia in particular, by going through the works of a great writer; the first Englishman and the youngest recipient for Nobel Prize in Literature (1907).  

The Censorship of Visual Pleasure in Pakistani Films

The dissertation discusses the censorship of visual pleasure and gaze in early and post-1979 Pakistani films in view of the issuance dates of the Motion Picture Ordinance (1979) and the Censorship of Film Rules (1980). It analyzes films and censor certificates of films considering that the Central Board of Film Censors (CBFC) has been censoring films for one nation in both the eras. However, contemporary films have replaced sexually passive girls of early films with bold and beautiful contemporary women, reflecting a change in the trends of censorship. The dissertation evaluates visual pleasure and gaze at female representations in films from both the eras. The dissertation reviews film scholarship to understand the relationship of cinema to state: stability of state and the threat of public uproars over issues of decency, morality, and sexuality in films. It also reviews the coverage of Pakistani films and industry in Dawn daily and other literature over the past decade to evaluate the performance of Pakistani cinema under different political regimes, its decline, present status and issues. However, its main focus remains on the censorship of visual pleasure in Pakistani films. The study uses critical theories to discuss male fascination and anxiety with the female form, social formations, and epistemology to examine the shift in the reality and representation of women to opposite poles in the pre-and-post-Zia films. The study uses triangulation of methods to analyze the films and the excisions as noted on the censor certificates of films by the CBFC in the pre-and-post-1979 eras. It evaluates the consistency in the vision and approach of the machinery of the state in implementing the Pakistani Cinema 23 censorship policy to sustain cultural norms, religious harmony, and peace in the country over a period of time. It evaluates various aspects of historical changes in interpreting and understanding Censorship of Film Rules about the political system, national identity, decency, morality, and sexuality, as both the legislation and film are reflection of wider society as subjective exercises. The review of Pakistani literature comprising the statistical data of films does not prove the authenticity of a general perception that General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq’s martial law regime and forced Islamization caused the decline of Pakistani cinema. The study of the censor certificates reflects that the CBFC excised more visual pleasure (dances-vulgar body movements and sexual innuendoes) from films produced in the pre Zia era and less from films produced in the post-Zia era. A change in ethics and mores of society is visible in images that were puritanical in early days and morally and sexually liberal later. The study explores élite gazing at traditional girls of the early films as opposed to the common gazing at free women who are open with their emotions and sexuality in contemporary films. The study finds that the early Pakistani films promoted the eastern cultural norms of Urdu speaking élites of Delhi and Lucknow against sexual boldness of westernized antagonists. The representations have changed tremendously over the decades replacing the shy women with the sexually bold and beautiful Punjabi heroines who act like the antagonists of the past. The study reflects changes in the censorship of visual pleasure in films though CBFC still censors the films as per rules.