فقہ اسلامی اور مروجہ ملکی قوانین کے تناظر میں عذر کی جدید طبی اور نفسیاتی صورتوں کا تجزیاتی مطالعہ

Shariah is comprised of five main branches: adab (behavior, morals and manners), ibadah (ritual worship), i’tiqadat (beliefs), mu’amalat (transactions and contracts) and ‘uqubat (punishments). These branches combine to create a society based on justice, pluralism and equity for every member of that society. Furthermore, Shariah forbids to impose it on any unwilling person. Islam’s founder, Prophet Muhammad, demonstrated that Shariah may only be applied if people willingly apply it to themselves—never through forced government implementation. Muslim jurists argued that laws such as these clearly mandated by God, are stated in an unambiguous fashion in the text of the Qur'an in order to stress that the laws are in and of themselves ethical precepts that by their nature are not subject to contingency, context, or temporal variations. It is important to note that the specific rules that are considered part of the Divine shari'a are a special class of laws that are often described as Qur'anic laws, but they constitute a fairly small and narrow part of the overall system of Islamic law. In addition, although these specific laws are described as non-contingent and immutable, the application of some of these laws may be suspended in cases of dire necessity (darura). Thus, there is an explicit recognition that even as to the most specific and objective shari'a laws, human subjectivity will have to play a role, at a minimum, in the process of determining correct enforcement and implementation of the laws.

Impact of Trade Liberalization on Environmental Quality: A Panel Study of Selected Asian Countries

The ongoing climatic changes and the global warming have intrigued researchers to explore the impact of different policies on the environmental quality. In this study, we focus on the question as to whether freer trade policy is compatible with environmental quality standards. There is no simple pattern of the association between the trade and environmental quality. The main objectives are to construct an index of Trade Liberalization Policy, to investigate the role of the trade liberalization in the environmental quality by decomposing the scale, composition and technique effect and to explore the additional social and institutional channels through which trade liberalization may cause environmental quality. The estimated empirical findings regarding the effects of the trade liberalization policy on imports and exports are strong and robust in different model specifications. Reductions in export and import duties have a significant positive effect on imports and exports of the panel countries with the overall impact on imports being greater than exports, while the liberalized trade regime has a significant positive influence on expanding trade volumes. The empirical findings reveal a mixed but moderate effect of the trade liberalization policy on the environmental quality. Trade liberalization policy appears to affect environmental quality differently through different channels. The net affect also varies across different pollutants. The trade liberalization policy has a detrimental effect on the environmental quality, through six out of ten channels. The channels which appear damaging to the environment include scale effect, energy use, manufacturing, democracy, poverty and xvii foreign direct investment. However, the trade policy liberalization benefits environment through four channels which include technique/income effect, physical capital, human capital and control over corruption. The net impact of liberalized trade policies is detrimental to the environment in case of carbon dioxide and composite index of emissions. However, in case of sulfur dioxide emissions, the overall net impact appears beneficial to the environment by lowering the SO2 emissions. This study has also examined the performance of the model by applying standard forecasting techniques such as within-sample and out-of-sample forecasts. The findings demonstrate that the model tracks data well and has very small mean prediction errors. The Theil’s Inequality Coefficient (TIC) also approaches zero in almost all cases. Thus the model can be used as a tool for carrying out structural analysis, forecasting and policy evaluation. Overall, in the trade-environment nexus, this study justifies the ambiguity regarding the impact of the freer trade on the environmental quality through different channels offering opposing effects. The findings of the present study necessitate the policy formulation to be multi-dimensional for dealing with simultaneously occurring positive and negative impacts.