پشتو نثر میں سیرت نگاری کا ایک علمی و تجزیاتی مطالعہ: منتخب کتب سیرت کی روشنی میں

Due to the significance of Sīrah, Muslim scholars started writing about it from the very beginning of Islam. Pashto language, like other major languages, contains the Sīrah writings. There are two types of Sīrah writings in Pashto language. The first type of books are written for a common man, in a very simple language and style, just to get guidance from the Sīrah of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H). This type of books were discussed by Dr. Sa’īdullah Qaḍī in his article “Sīrah books in Pashto Language” published in “Al-Ḥaq” Monthly Journal of Jami’a Dārul Uloom Ḥaqqānia, Akora Khattak. The second type of Sīrah books are written after deep research and criticism of the narrations. But it is worth mentioning that no comprehensive research has been carried out so far which can cover both types of books. Therefore an analysis of the Selected Sīrah writings in Pashto Language has been made, to explore the remarkable Sīrah writings in Pashto Language.

Religious Encounters and Religious Pluralism in the Nineteenth Century Bengal: A Contextualized Study of Swami Vivekanandas Neo-Vedanta

This doctoral dissertation consists of an introduction, five chapters and conclusion. The introduction is designed to focus on Vivekananda’s biographical details by relying on available literature. An account of his life further enables researcher to highlight the contribution of his predecessor’s neo-Vedantins in shaping his practical Vedanta. Among these neo-Vedantins the role and nature of Ram Mohan Roy’s and Ramakrishna’s neo-Vedanta is briefly discussed in the context of nineteenth century pluralistic Bengali society. A few pages are also written on neo-Vedanta of Vivekananda that made its appearance in the second half of the nineteenth century in Bengal due to the amalgamation of Ram Mohan’s western influenced neo-Vedanta and Ramakrishna’s mystical neo-Vedanta. The investigation of the distinct nature of his neo-Vedanta, his doctrine of religious pluralism and Universalism and contextualized study of his neo-Vedanta research frame is developed. That constitutes the theory of pluralism and Karl Mannheim approach of sociology of knowledge. The first chapter deals with the background of religious reform movements in the nineteenth century Bengal that are restricted to Farāʼḍῑ movement and neo-Vedantic movements (of Ram Mohan Roy and Ramakrishna). These reform movements emerged to inculcate religious consciousness for reforming and revitalizing their respective religions; Hinduism and Islam. Farāʼḍῑ, Muslim reform movement, considered revitalization of Islam in taking refuge in the golden period of Prophet Muḥammad while neo-Vedanat, Hindu reform movement, believed in the revival of Hinduism by reinterpreting Hinduism in rational and western philosophical framework to neutralize Christian criticism. Hājῑ Sharῑ‘atullah (1787-1840), as a Muslim reformer expressed his core objective in underlining the Islamic five basic obligations to establish a Muslim society on the footsteps of Prophet Muḥammad by eradicating all types of shirk (polytheism) and innovations. While, in Hinduism Ram Mohan Roy’s apologetic approach gave birth to neo-Vedanta. Ram Mohan tried to equate his neo-Vedanta with Advaita Vedanta when he claimed that he had approved Advaita Vedanta, the only creed of his Brahmo Samaj, but the reality reflects another side of the picture. Because in Ram Mohan neo-Vedanta metaphysical spirituality of Advaita Vedanta’s was substituted by western intellectuality and reasoning to reject the authority of Vedas, Idol worship, caste system, widow burning and caste discrimination. Ramakrishna’s neo-Vedanta succeeded in maintaining the link with Indian mystical elements firstly, due to his bhagti for mother Kali and secondly, he never experienced direct contact with western secular education. On the contrary, to Ram Mohan’s neo-Vedanta, he supported Idol worshiping, rejected the caste system while he was silent on sati. He criticized the Ram Mohan’s apologetic attitude towards Hinduism because he considered Hinduism beyond any corruption and ignorance. He rather emphasized on the infiniteness of Hinduism, which, according to him, had the ability to accommodate all ranges of worship, from polytheism to monotheism. His neo-Vedanta appears to be tantra Advaita Vedanta due to his preference of bhagti over janan that made him to equate his Kali to metaphysical impersonal Brahman and in his tantric context, the world became lila of his mother Kali. His experiential neo-Vedanta in non-Hindu religious experiences gave him syncretic vision, which considered all religions as different paths leading to one goal; realization of one God. But his every religious experience of other non-Hindu religions attained its climax in his nirguna and saguna Brahman. In the nineteenth century Bengali society the catalyst behind this religious Renaissance was the late eighteenth century Orientalists generally, and nineteenth century Christian missionaries particularly. Though the methodologies these two adopted were opposite in nature. The Orientalists produced the feeling of pride in Hindus is regarding their religion, while the Missionaries targeted those Hindu beliefs and practices through which they could sow the seed of inferiority complexes among the Hindus. The above mentioned brief historical background of the nineteenth century reform movements generally and neo- Vedantins particular, provides the foundation for the second chapter of this dissertation; Vivekananda’s neo-Vedanta. This chapter mainly discusses the practical implementation of neo-Vedanta in the context of caste system, liberation of Hindu women from unjust socio-religious practices and missionary Hinduism. The key through which Vivekananda tried to interpret these issues was his new scheme of metaphysics (neo-Vedanta) that he developed by bringing Impersonal metaphysical Brahman of Shankaracharya to the mayic world. This penetration not only facilitated him to postulate the concept of a deified world where the jiva becomes Shiva and worship of God becomes parallel with service of humanity. In this deified Vivekananda’s world, men and women of all castes become equal due to equal sharing of divinity and it leaves no space for caste and gender discrimination. Beside these issues in this chapter, Vivekananda’s concept of missionary Hinduism is also discussed. He satisfied his missionary zeal by merging Buddhism with Hinduism because according to him Buddhism is nothing else but spiritual Hinduism. His intentions behind this melting of Buddhist boundary in Hinduism was on the one hand to regain those Hindus into Hinduism who converted to other religions and to check the mass conversion of Hindus to Christianity. On the other hand, his missionary axiom of absorption of good from other religions and to keep intact once religious identity provided him the impetus to formulate his neo-Vedanta in the pluralistic and universalistic realm. Therefore the third chapter with the title, The Journey of Vivekananda from Revival and Reform to Pluralism and Universalism aims at focusing on how Vivekananda perceived Hinduism among other world religions, as well as how he defines the term religion, types of religion and purpose of religion! Vivekananda’s writing is missing one single definition of religion; he rather defines religion differently in different sections of his work. His every definition, however, in one way or another, is pointing towards Hinduism generally and Vedanta particularly. His categorizations of world religions are also based on the realization of God in the soul (Vedanta) that enables him categorize religion in semantic religion and Vedanta. While as a pluralist his position at some place appears as an inclusivist, and on other occasions as an exclusivist. His inclusivism becomes evident when on the one hand; he accommodates Islam and Christianity in Dvaita Vedanta,and symbolic Christ as living Vedantins. While his religious exclusivism can be noticed in placing Vedanta as a universal religion, because it can fulfill the spiritual thirst of a variety of people due to bhagti, Jnana and karma margas. Vivekananda’s adjustment of non-Hindu religion in Vedantic frame demands exploration of his knowledge regarding other non-Hindu religions (Buddhism, Christianity and Islam). Hence Chapter four, Vivekananda’s Views about other Religions is divided into three subsections; each describes his treatment of Buddhism, Christianity and Islam regarding their religious doctrines, founders or prophets and as a civilization. It is interesting to note that his whole appreciation, criticism or rejection of the religious doctrines and religious practices of these religions was done within Vedantic frame. Or in other words Vedanta was a standard set of Vivekananda for the acceptance or rejection of other non-Hindu religions. Among these non-Hindu religions his fondness and preference for Hinduism becomes more evident in evaluating Islam as a religion when it is compared with other religions. This is because he tried to reject Islamic tenets not only through Vedanta, but also through depending on prevalent Muslim practices. He writes that Islam claims to be a monotheistic religion, but polytheism is widely spread is Islamic practices, like Muslims’ prostration to the Kabah, their kissing of the black stone and reverence to a Pīr’s grave. These four chapters of the thesis lead the researcher to the last chapter that attempted a contextual study of Vivekananda’s neo-Vedanta. The fifth chapter entitled Contextualized Interpretation of the Vivekananda’s neo-Vedantais intended to understand the effects and the relationship of the Orientalists, Christian missionaries and his neo-Vedantin predecessors in shaping his practical Vedanta in the nineteenth century Bengal. Among these Orientalists and Missionaries, the trio of William Edward, Colebrook, Serampore and Alexander Duff are worth mentioning. While among his predecessors, the earlier efforts of Ram Mohan Roy, Debendra Nath Tagore, Keshab Chandra and Ramakrishna have been addressed. The conclusion pertains to the results of the study." xml:lang="en_US