Negative Wash-Back of Formative Assessment to Learning in Saudi Higher Education Context

This article reports the wash-back of formative assessment on what students learn, how they learn and the depth of their learning in Saudi higher education context. Previous research indicates that assessment methods affect different aspects of learning either positively or negatively depending on the nature of assessment tasks. Observations indicate a clear association between Saudi students’ learning and how their learning is assessed; so this research was needed to determine how exactly the correlation looked like—positive or negative. The data in this study were collected from Saudi undergraduates by employing a student survey and semi-structured interviews. The survey included Likert scale items of agreement regarding research assignments, quizzes and midterm examinations administered to 250 English-major students. To validate the survey results, sixteen students from different levels with GPA 3 and above were interviewed. The results showed that formative assessment narrowed down the scope of learning materials. The students mostly adopted surface level learning strategies to prepare for formative assessment tasks. Higher order thinking skills were not tested in any of the formative assessment methods. Therefore, it is suggested that assessments tasks should be subjected to thorough validation and moderation. Sound assessment practices should be put in place and practiced judiciously. To achieve these objectives, sustained institutional and departmental professional backing is a prerequisite.

Productive and Reproductive Performance of Indegenious and Cross Bred Dairy Calttle in Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu and Kashmir

The study was conducted at Livestock Development Research Centre Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The primary objective of this study was to improve the milk production of indigenous cows along with other productive and reproductive traits by crossing with European breeds. The indigenous heifers were artificially inseminated with Jersey semen and F1 crossbred were produced. The F1 offspring were selfed to obtain the F2 offspring and on the other hand the F1 cows were crossed with Frisian bull to produce three-breed crossbred cows. The information regarding productive and reproductive traits of all the cows was studied. The number of cows for each group were 48 for indigenous, 32 for F1 (Indigenous × Jersey) cross, 19 for F2 (F1 × F1) cross and 18 for F1 × Frisian cross. Highly significant increase (P < 0.0001) in milk yield and birth weights of calves was observed in all the crossbred cows compared to indigenous cows. Highest milk yield per lactation (1411.0 ± 92.88 liters) and highest lactation length (354.5 ± 16.70 s) was observed in F1 × Frisian cross whereas the highest 305day milk yield (1674.0 ± 47.58 liters) and daily average milk yield (5.07 ± 0.14 liters) was observed in F1 (Indigenous × Jersey) cows. 305day milk yield did not differ significantly between F2 (1295.0 ± 75.36 liters) and F1 × Frisian (1355.0 ± 60.32 liters) cows. The sex ratio of male and female calves did not differ significantly among the all breed groups (P > 0.05). Similarly method of breeding did not affect the sex ratio of male and female calves. Mean age at first calving (AFC) reduced highly significantly (P < 0.0001) in all the crossbred cows (951.2 ± 37.35 s for F1, 1086 ± 37.89 for F2 and 952.1 ± 28.23 s for F1 × Frisian) compared to indigenous (1861 ± 42.45 s) cows. Mean AFC of F1 and F1 × Frisian cows did not differ significantly (P = 0.9869). Mean dry period of F1 (110.2 ± 4.78 s); F2 (124.8 ± 10.14 s) and F1 × Frisian (99.76 ± 6.67 s) cows decreased highly significantly (P < 0.0001) compared to indigenous cows (239.5 ±7.87 s). The dry period among the crossbred cows did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). The service period recorded in present study was 256.0 ± 8.67, 92.60 ± 5.04, 81.81 ± 11.19 and 266.7 ± 16.56 s for indigenous, F1, F2 and F1 × Frisian cows respectively. The mean service period in F1 and F2 crossbred cows decreased highly significantly (P < 0.0001) compared to indigenous cows but no significant difference (P = 0.5493) was observed between the service period of indigenous and F1 × Frisian cows. Mean calving interval of one year was observed in F1 (368.8 ± 5.32 s) and F2 (359.8 ± 11.68 s) crossbred cows where as a calving interval of 518.6 ± 9.54 and 540.9 ± 22.39 s was observed in indigenous and F1 × Frisian cows respectively. The mean calving interval decreased highly significantly in F1 and F2 cows compared to indigenous and F1 × Frisian cows (P < 0.0001). Mean calving interval of indigenous and F1 × Frisian cows did not differ significantly (P = 0.2895). High breeding efficiency was observed in F1 (93.68 ± 1.85 %) and F2 (93.71 ± 2.74 %) and it increased highly significantly (P < 0.0001) in F1 and F2 compared to indigenous cows (73.46 ± 2.50 %). The mean breeding efficiency of F1 × Frisian (65.62 ± 3.05 %) did not differ significantly from that of indigenous cows (P = 0.0870). Within F2 crossbred cows significant (P < 0.05) sires effects were observed on 305 milk yield, daily milk yield and service period while the birth weight, milk yield per lactation, lactation length, age at first calving, dry period and calving interval were not affected significantly (P > 0.05) by sire. The sire effects within F1× Frisian crossbred cows were not observed (P > 0.05). Parity has significantly affected 305day milk yield in indigenous, F1 and F2 cows whereas parity did not significantly affected 305day milk yield in F1 × Frisian cows (P = 0.2472). The 305day milk yield in indigenous cows decreased significantly (P = 0.0063) from parity one to parity five. 305day milk yield in F1 and F2 increased significantly (P < 0.05) towards 4th and 5th parity and decreased thereafter. The mean lactation length in indigenous cows decreased significantly from first to five parity (P = 0.0024). Parity did not affect significantly (P > 0.05) lactation length of crossbred cows in relation to parity. Season of calving significantly (P < 0.05) affected the 305day milk yield in indigenous and crossbred cows. In indigenous cows autumn calvers produced the highest 305day milk compared to spring, summer and winter calvers. In crossbred cows highest 305day milk yield was observed in winter calvers compared to spring, summer and autumn calvers. The lactation length was not affected significantly (P > 0.05) by the season of calving in nondescript and their crossbred. Year of calving had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on 305 milk yield and lactation length of nondescript indigenous cows. 305 milk yield and lactation length of all the crossbred groups was not affected significantly (P > 0.05) by the year of calving. Overall productive and reproductive performance of indigenous × Jersey (F1) crossbred cows was found to be better compared to F2 and F1× Frisian crossbred cows. Thus upgrading of indigenous cows of AJ&K with exotic breed of Jersey is suggested in this study.