The Shift of Power from the Public Representatives to the Bureaucratic and Military Elite: Case Study of the First Decade of Pakistan

A combination of military coups with irregular intervals and failed democratic governments has underpinned Pakistan’s chronic instability. This paper explores the impediments in the path of democracy in Pakistan caused by the entanglement of institutions. The basic democratic principles, on which the movement for the creation of Pakistan was launched and succeeded, were lost within the first decade of independence. Several scholars hold that the people of Pakistan got liberated from the British and Hindu majority to be enslaved by socio-political and military elite. The failure of politicians in devising a viable political system resulted in the bureaucratic-military nexus as they made every effort to curb parliamentary politics. Musical chair game of power became the norm of the day which resulted in the decay of democracy and other institutions. Unlike its counterpart, Indian National Congress, Muslim League due to weak and loose political organization, failed miserably in areas constituting Pakistan which prevented it in playing a consolidating role. Moreover, the threats from India and Afghanistan forced the political leadership to invest heavily in security to deter Indian and Afghan threats. In fact, it was the imbalance between the civil and military components of the state, which became the key reason behind the political chaos in Pakistan during its first decade. The Army emerged as an overwhelming force overpowering all other institutions in the country. Democratic ideals such as rule of people through their representatives, fair representation and provincial autonomy, pronounced in the 1940 Lahore Resolution, were soon forgotten. Weak democratic forces could not compete with the skilled bureaucracy and a powerful army. Such chaotic conditions proved instrumental in leading to the proclamation of the first Martial Law in Pakistan

Comparative Reference Values of Somatic Cells, Enzymes and Some Biochemical Constituents in the Milk from Uninfected Mammary Glands of Nili-Ravi Buffaloes, Sahiwal and Cross-Bred Cows.

Pakistan is among the top milk producing countries of the world. However, the quality control standards for milk have not as yet been established. The present study was conducted to establish the normal reference values of milk somatic cell counts (SCC), different milk enzymes and other important milk constituents in non-infected milk of Nili-Ravi buffaloes, Sahiwal and cross-bred cows. The milk samples from 30 animals (in the first two months of first to 5th lactation) of each group were collected from Livestock Experimental Station, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad and commercial dairy farms and tested for mastitis using Surf Field Mastitis test and microbiological examination and negative samples were used to establish the reference values. Milk samples were analyzed for different parameters like pH, electrical conductivity (EC), SCC, milk enzymes i.e. lacto-peroxidase (LPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), guaiacol peroxidase (GPO), catalase (CAT), protease, amylase, α-esterase, NAGase, total phenolic contents (TPC), proteins and malondialdehyde (MDA) content and reference values were established. Total protein (81.6±2.0 mg mL-1), casein (71.4±1.2 mg mL-1), TPC (2381.6±71.85 μM mL-1), total oxidant status (TOS) (61.25±0.59 μM mL-1), protease (81.3±3.35 U/mL), CAT (97.45±4.8 U/mL), LPO (1.75±0.06 U/mL), NAGase (56.07±2.33 U/mL) and SCC (178645.83±2324.0 mL-1) were the highest in milk of crossbred cows. Whey protein (28.8±1.25 mg mL-1), GPO (110.74±8.64 U/mL), SOD (17.15±0.56 U/mL), amylase (89.44±2.51U/mL), EC (5.7±0.04) and MDA (2.27±0.07 μM mL-1) was the highest in Sahiwal cow’s milk. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (3.296±0.005 mM L-1) and α-esterase (361.19±13.63 U/mL) activity were the highest in milk of Nili-Ravi buffaloes. The SCC negatively correlated with TOS, TAC, Lacto-serum protein and α-esterase activity while NAGase with lacto-serum protein and amylase, therefore, their higher values can be used as indicators of good milk quality. SCC and NAGase positively correlated with TPC, CAT and LPO. As such their lower values seem to be associated with better udder health and good milk quality. GPO and SOD negatively correlated with TOS, TAC, total protein, casein and α-esterase activity but positively correlated with amylase, EC, SCC, MDA and lacto-serum protein therefore, their lower values in milk may be desirable. Milk quality of Nili-Ravi was comparatively superior based on lower values of SCC, EC, NAGase, CAT, GPO, SOD, TPC, protease and higher TAC. Protein profiling through SDS-PAGE clearly resolved the major milk peptides. In high molecular weight (M. wt.) zone, proteins of ~208 kDa and ~190 kDa were detected in all tested samples. In medium M. wt. zone, three peptides i.e. lactoferrin (78.2kDa), serum albumin (66.2kDa) and heavy chain of immunoglobulin (IgG) (54 kDa) were detected in all samples while a prominent band of ovalbumin (45kDa) was also detected mainly in cow milk samples. In low M. wt. zone, clear bands of milk caseins were detected. All four casein (CN) bands i.e. αS2 – CN (29 kDa), αS1 – CN (27 kDa), β - CN (24 kDa) and κ- CN (22 kDa) were detected in Sahiwal and cross-bred cows. However, in milk of Nili-Ravi buffaloes, three casein protein i.e. αS2 – CN (29 kDa), β - CN (25 kDa) and κ- CN (22 kDa) were detected. In milk of Nili-Ravi buffaloes, αS1 – CN (27 kDa) was not detected. Moreover, a band of β-lactoglobulin (~18 kDa) was detected in milk of cross-bred cows and not in other samples especially those of Nili-Ravi buffaloes. As the αS1-casein and β-lactoglobulin are the major allergens, milk of Nili- Ravi buffaloes that lacks these peptides can be used for development of hypoallergenic or non-allergic dairy products. Deferential peptides may also help to differentiate the milk from different tested dairy species/cow types.